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Ten Tips for Health 1. Identify sources of excessive stress and deal with them. 2. Minimize exposure to toxic substances and distressing people. 3. Develop supportive and satisfying relationships with people and pets. 4. Balance dietary proteins and carbohydrates. 5. Eat fresh organic food. 6. Supplement diet with multivitamins, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids. 7. Exercise enough to sleep well at night. 8. Sleep enough to awaken refreshed without an alarm. Nap as needed. 9. Enjoy fresh air, pure water, and natural sunlight. 10. Visit beautiful places that are spiritually refreshing. Military Male Rape, Homophobia, and Gay History Stanley E. Harris, M.D., D.F.A.P.A. Clinical Professor Department of Psychiatry and the Behavioral Sciences Keck School of Medicine University of Southern California, Los Angeles August, 2003 OUTLINE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Method Male Rape Trauma Syndrome Definition of Culture Overview of the Judaeo-Christian Culture History Judaeo-Christian Cultural Values Regarding Homosexuality A CROSS-SPECIES, CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON MALE HOMOSEXUALITY Cross-Species Data Cross Cultural Data HISTORIC MILITARY HOMOSEXUALITY General Principles: Status, Availability, and Aggression HOMOPHOBIA IN THE JUDAEO-CHRISTIAN CULTURE: A DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY 1960 BC: Abram and the Beginnings 1580 BC: Egyptian Abuse 1447 BC: The Erotophobic Exodus 1200-600 BC: Vicissitudes in Canaan 597 BC: Babylonian Exile 538 BC: Persian Revival 333-143 BC: Pederastic Greeks 275-165 BC: Hellenistic Holocaust--Sodom and Gomorrah Revisited 143-63 BC: Brief Hebrew Independence 63 BC-135 AD: The Roman Era Roman Brutality: The Traumatic Birth of Christianity Homophobia: A Judaic Contribution to the Judaeo-Christian Culture The Rise of Christianity and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire 200-500 AD: Barbarian Rape 527-565 AD: Codification and Castration in the Eastern Roman Empire 500-1000 AD: The Middle Ages--More Barbarians 1000-1400 AD: The Crusades and Christian Expansionism 1400-1700 AD: Islamic Ottoman Turks--The Last Insult CULTURAL RECOVERY The Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries: Revolt Against Church Authority and International Rivalry The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries' Political and Industrial Revolution: Twentieth Century: Torture and Tolerance Before World War II World War II: The German Holocaust World War II: Allied Stigmatization Outs Gays The Cold War: Homophobes and Homophiles 1950's: America Gives Birth to the Modern Gay Rights Movement 1960's: Civil Rights and Women's Rights Spawn Gay Rights 1970's: Liberation and Backlash: Homosexual Orientation Becomes Gay Identity A Global Perspective on the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century 1980's: Fight for Civil Rights: AIDS Resurrects Fears Progressive 1980's Developments Outside of the United States Dealing with HIV Military Response 1980's: Developments in the United States 1990's: GLBTQI Communities Gains Visibility and Acceptance 2000-: Gay Marriage and Transgender Issues Emerge CONCLUDING DISCUSSION REFERENCES "The panderers have violated and smutted it. Yet this reaching is alive yet for lights and keepsakes." -Carl Sandburg: "The People, Yes" (107: 45-58) ABSTRACT Many historic cultures have adapted male homosexuality to enhance social relations. However, the Judaeo-Christian culture has viewed male homosexuality as a threat to procreation, masculine status, and social order. Why does Judaeo-Christian homophobia deviate from more accepting cross-cultural norms? This paper begins by comparing Judaeo-Christian cultural norms about male homosexuality with norms of some more accepting historic cultures. Then, the paper describes how, during the past 3500 years, the traumatic rape of Judaeo-Christian military men by their enemies may have contributed to the development of cultural homophobia. The paper concludes by showing how the modern gay movement may play a role in the culture's recovery from homophobia. INTRODUCTION In this paper, the author proposes several hypothetical ideas that may be controversial, and supports them to varying degrees with a summary of cross-cultural and historic information. The hypothetical ideas include: 1. Bisexuality is the cross-species, cross-cultural norm. 2. Culture confers meaning to human sexual desire and expression. 3. Culture may become disordered in response to developmental trauma. 4. Members of the disordered culture share and express the disorder as a cultural norm. 5. The Judaeo-Christian culture's homophobia is a cultural disorder in response to traumatic military male rape. 6. The Judaeo-Christian culture's homophobia stigmatizes homosexuality, and therefore polarizes natural bisexuality into heterosexual and homosexual social adjustments and identities. 7. Due to homophobia, most members of the Judaeo-Christian culture experience impaired ability to form loving supportive homosexual relationships. 8. Judaeo-Christian cultural homophobia is exacerbated by political, economic, and military trouble; and is relieved by political, economic, and military security. 9. The modern gay movement is a part of Judaeo-Christian culture's recovery from homophobia. 10. Developing and minority cultures emulate the most conservative, homophobic values of the dominant Judaeo-Christian culture. Method The research method for this paper has been an extensive, but not comprehensive review of relevant English literature. Resources were selected because they were deemed authoritative in college coursework or because they presented information related to the author's hypotheses. The author completed college coursework in world history, cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology, world religions, and philosophy of religion; and further studies in Christianity, behavioral sciences, and public health during medical school. However, the author does not claim to be an academic expert in these fields. While completing residency in military psychiatry, the author became interested in military homophobia. In 1981, to fulfill a research requirement in a United States Army psychiatric residency, the author began reviewing books and articles authored by historians, psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, psychiatrists, journalists, and theologians. Research and writing progressed until 1982, when the Army began discharge proceedings against the author for homosexuality. After being honorably discharged, relocating, and developing a new career; the author resumed reviewing select relevant publications to update and complete this paper. Other authors, from the vantage points of their respective disciplines, have described homosexuality and homophobia across cultures and throughout history. This paper is the first to integrate these various disciplines' perspectives into a biopsychosocial analysis showing the relationship between Judaeo-Christian culture's traumatic developmental experience of military male rape by surrounding enemy cultures and the development of Western cultural homophobia. The paper is also the first to hypothesize that the modern gay identity movement is a part of the culture's recovery. Male Rape Trauma Syndrome Academic research on male rape began in the late 1970's as a small part of the feminist movement's efforts to address sexual violence (Scarce, 1997). Raped men may suffer post traumatic stress disorder symptoms including fear, helplessness, and horror. They may have recurrent intrusive memories of the event, distressing dreams, flashbacks, and experience distress in response to symbols of the trauma. They may avoid stimuli associated with the rape and report numbing of general responsiveness. They may have amnesia about the most painful experiences, feel estranged from others, and lose their ability to have loving feelings. They may become hyper vigilant with exaggerated startle responses and irritable outbursts of anger, or withdrawal into a depressed state (DSM-IV-TR, 2000). Just as raped heterosexual women may lose their ability to enjoy consensual heterosexual relations, raped men may become averse to close male contact. Raped people often reorganize their lives and even change spiritual beliefs and practices in order to cope. When a whole culture is defeated, raped, and enslaved; its beliefs, values, customs, laws, and institutions may change to cope with the trauma. Definition of Culture A culture is a group of people who share beliefs, values, and behaviors constituting cultural norms, which then give meaning to individual variations from the norm. Cultural norms develop in response to a culture's experiences with surrounding cultures. Cultural norms may be adaptive and enhance the survival of the people. Norms may also be neutral or maladaptive. In any case, they are interdependent and integrated (Ember, 1973). For example, a cultural norm promoting procreative heterosexuality may be adaptive when a culture needs to grow, but becomes maladaptive in an overpopulated era. Persistent maladaptive cultural norms may be considered to be cultural disorders. When understood in the context of the biopsychosocial model, cultural factors may have great influence on an individual's behavior, feelings, and associated physiology and biochemistry (Engel, 1980). Cultural factors strongly influence the expression of sexuality and the meaning of sexual behaviors, heterosexual and homosexual (Marmor, 1980). Overview of the Judaeo-Christian Culture History Judaeo-Christian culture's history may be traced from its beginning in the twentieth century B.C., when Abram and his family settled in Canaan, to the culture's present political, economic, and military dominance of the world. For the first 2000 years, the culture developed with the Hebrew people as they struggled to survive Egyptian (1580-1447B.C.), Babylonian (597-538B.C.), Persian (538-333B.C.), Greek (333-143B.C.), and Roman (63B.C. - 135A.D.) military defeats and subjugations. After the Romans defeated and dispersed the Jews, Hebrew culture was transmitted through Apocalyptic Jews to the early Christians, whose converts gradually Christianized the crumbling Roman Empire and spread throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. During the subsequent barbarian invasions (200-1200A.D.) and conquests by the Islamic Ottoman Turks (1200-1700A.D.), Judaeo-Christian Europeans developed technologies of defense that also contributed to urbanizing, industrializing, and exploring the rest of the world. Europeans then conquered, colonized, and Christianized until, by now, the Judaeo-Christian culture dominates the entire world (Epstein, 1959; Stavrianos, 1970; Garraty, 1972). Judaeo-Christian Cultural Values Regarding Homosexuality The belief system supporting negative myths, values, and stereotypes about homosexuality is known as cultural homophobia (Morin, 1978). People of the Judaeo-Christian culture generally have had very negative thoughts and feelings about male homosexuality. The intensity of disapproval varies with the extent of Judaeo-Christian cultural dominance (Churchill, 1967). Cultural homophobia has been expressed by condoned violence against homosexuals and bisexuals, imprisonment, discrimination in housing and employment, legal penalties, exclusion from political, military, professional, educational, and religious organizations, rejection by family and friends, and medical attempts to define homosexuality as an illness to cure it (Marmor, 1980). Prior to describing the developmental history of the Judaeo-Christian cultural homophobia, a brief cross-cultural historical overview of some other cultures' norms is presented for comparison. A CROSS-SPECIES, CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON MALE HOMOSEXUALITY Cross-Species Data Careful study has shown that animals behave both heterosexually and homosexually in ways that appear to be adaptively related to social order and to the availability of partners (Denniston, 1980). For example, baboon troops have a social hierarchy. Dominant males mount and copulate, not only with females, but also with less dominant males, even in the presence of receptive females. The more dominant baboon protects and cares for subordinate baboons who, in return, are obedient and sexually submissive (Vanggaard, 1969). Animal homosexual activities include courtship, affection, sex, pair-bonding, and parenting (Bagemihl, 1999). Cross Cultural Data Many cultures prior to Judaeo-Christian cultural world dominance have approved of both heterosexual and homosexual relations. In approving cultures, exclusive homosexuality or heterosexuality was rare. Strong cultural disapproval and stigmatization of homosexuality apparently polarizes people into exclusive heterosexual and homosexual roles (Churchill, 1967). Social status and the availability of sexual partners influence human sexual behavior. Where males have higher social status than females, the active penetrating male in a homosexual contact has higher masculine status, whereas the passive recipient male is given a lower status, like a female (Carrier, 1980). A masculine male may usually insert into a female, but may turn to a less dominant male for gratification if a female is not available. When isolated from members of the opposite sex, sailors, prisoners, and warriors are more likely to have homosexual relations (Mead, 1961). In the Human Relations Area Files, homosexual behavior was described in 76 of the 190 societies reported. Of those 76 societies, homosexual behavior was considered normal in 64%. In the 36% that disapproved, the homosexual behavior continued, but less overtly (Ford, 1951). Observer bias, taboo, and diverse systems for classifying behavior complicate the data (Bullough, 1976). The forms and meanings of homosexual behaviors have varied among cultures. Whereas some societies approved of pederasty, others approved of different expressions, such as between young peers or with cross gender roles. Some societies have specified some homosexual behaviors as approved and others as disapproved (Churchill, 1967). The first major culture of record that had approved male homosexual relations was the Mesopotamian civilization. The Mesopotamians practiced anal intercourse, heterosexual and homosexual (Bullough, 1976). The ancient Egyptian (Bailey, 1955), Japanese (Benedict, 1946), Greek (Dover, 1978), Roman (Boswell, 1980), Ottoman (Rossman, 1976), Scandinavian (Vanggaard, 1969), Native American (Williams, 1986), and various island societies (Carrier, 1980) approved various forms of bisexual expression. Many examples could be given, but only three will be summarized here: the Japanese, the Azande of Sudan, and the Etoro of New Guinea. 1) In old Japan, homosexual relations were sanctioned for men of high status, priests, and Samurai warriors, who formed pederastic relationships and also enjoyed the company of male geishas. These relationships did not interfere with the family. In the Meiji period of Western acculturation, though, Japan made homosexual practices, as well as many of her other customs, illegal in order to win the approval of dominant Westerners (Benedict, 1946). 2) A North African tribe illustrates bisexual social adaptation. Prior to European dominance, the nineteenth century North African Azande of Sudan was a polygamous society. Most of the marriageable women were owned by wealthy older men, so were not available to the younger men. Young men served in the military until they were wealthy enough to buy wives for themselves. While in the military, though, men bought boy-wives to live with them, cook for them, carry their weapons, sleep with them, and be their sexual partners. In this way, the teenage boys learned how to be soldiers and eventually replaced their husbands in the army. When soldiers had gained enough wealth, they would leave the military to start their own families. Often, family men would continue to buy boy-wives, as well as women. In families with many wives, the women formed pairs to share their chores and to satisfy each other sexually when their husband was occupied with other wives (Evans-Pritchard, 1970). 3) The Etoro of the New Guinea highlands may be considered somewhat heterophobic, because their cultural beliefs significantly restricted and reduced heterosexual intercourse. The men believed that their life force was concentrated in semen. Each man possessed a limited supply, which could be augmented or diminished. Every ejaculation diminished the reservoir of life force. Men believed that they could pass on their life force in two ways--conception by their wives and fellatio by boys. They believed that boys gained masculine life force by ingesting men's semen. The men felt responsible for imparting masculine strength to the boys and felt gratified as the boys matured into men. However, heterosexual intercourse was prohibited 205 to 260 days per year because it was thought to diminish the life force if it did not result in conception (Kelly, 1976). In summary, prior to Judaeo-Christian dominance, many cultures have approved of various forms of homosexual relations. Apparently, homosexual relations in approving cultures have served to strengthen attachment. Between partners who are peers, the homosexual relationship deepens their bond. When the homosexual relationship has been between older and younger males, the younger male has gained knowledge and masculine status through intimacy with the older male, who has been invigorated by the youthful energy of the younger male. HISTORIC MILITARY HOMOSEXUALITY General Principles: Status, Availability, and Aggression "Homosexuality may be expected among warriors" (Mead, 1961, p. 1471). Many military organizations prior to Judaeo-Christian cultural dominance have adapted homosexuality to their advantage. Some have favored relations between males of differing age and status, and others have favored peer relations. The hierarchical characteristics of authoritarian military life and the unavailability of heterosexual partners have often contributed to the formation intergenerational pederastic homosexual relationships, such as occurred in ancient Greek militaries (Dover, 1978). Homosexual relationships have also been described between peers. The Gilgamesh Epic, an ancient Mesopotamian heroic poem written in the seventh century B.C., exemplifies an erotic union between two heroes, Gilgamesh and Enkidu, who shared equal status. Ancient Norsemen and Vikings, as well as the North American Indians and the New Caledonians, had homosexual relationships between brothers-in-arms. The warlike Battle-Axe people, who invaded Denmark from the south in about 2000 B.C., buried blood-brothers together, just as they did husband and wife (Vanggaard, 1969). Aggression, including the pleasure of conquering and dominating another man, has acted as a stimulus for erection and genital activity (Vanggaard, 1969). Adolescent American boys get full erections from boxing, wrestling, hearing gunfire, seeing soldiers march, and watching war movies (Kinsey, 1948). Warriors have often raped the men they conquered (McNeill, 1976). Modern military initiation rites have included forced symbolic and real anal penetration of new recruits to demonstrate who is in charge (Scarce, 1997). A folk tale dating from about 2000 B.C. about two rivalrous gods, Horus and Seth, illustrates the role of dominance in ancient Egyptian military homosexuality. The gods called upon Horus and Seth to make peace, so Seth invited Horus to his home for celebration. Horus accepted, not suspecting Seth's unfriendly intentions. "The story describes the sequel to this visit: THE CONTENDINGS OF HORUS AND SETH, xi. 3-4: 'And when it was eventide the bed was spread for them, and they twain lay down. And in the night Seth caused his member to become stiff, and he made it go between the loins of Horus.' (Transl. A.H. Gardiner, The Chester Beatty Papyri, I, Oxford, 1931, p. 21, 22). Later, Seth demanded the office of Ruler, declaring that he had 'performed doughty deeds of war' against Horus. There is evidence that among both Egyptians and other peoples, sodomy was regarded as an indignity suitable for infliction upon a defeated enemy-partly, no doubt, because it would add to the humiliation of the conquered by treating them as if they were women" (Bailey, 1955, p. 30). The ancient Egyptians added injury to insult by amputating the phalli of their defeated enemy. For example, Pharaoh Mernepth in the XIXth Dynasty listed the booty taken after the defeat of an invading Libyan army. The list included 6359 uncircumcised phalli, plus the phalli of the chief's children, the priests' brothers, and others (Bullough, 1976). A thirteenth century B.C. stone relief in Thebes shows Egyptians offering spoils of war to their king. Its inscription translates, 'Prisoners brought before the king, 1000. Phalli collected, 3000.' Apparently, the ancient Egyptians soldiers dominated their enemies by emasculating them and raping them (Bullough, 1976). Military homosexuality has varied related to cultural and social needs at the time. As with sexuality in general, homosexuality has been employed for good and for evil. At times homosexuality has enhanced social attachment, unit cohesion, and order; and at times violent homosexual behavior has been used to denigrate and destroy enemies. Any homosexual practice that enhances the military strength of the victor would be perceived as evil by the vanquished. Military homosexuality will be discussed further when the ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Barbarian, and Ottoman military conquests of the Judaeo-Christian culture are described. HOMOPHOBIA IN THE JUDAEO-CHRISTIAN CULTURE: A DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY The Beginnings Judaeo-Christian culture began nearly 4000 years ago in Mesopotamia (Churchill, 1967). Mesopotamian culture approved of polygamous relationships, including both heterosexual and homosexual anal intercourse (Bullough, 1976). Mesopotamian "potency incantations often included statements such as, 'if a man has anal intercourse with his male companion...' [Biggs, Robert D., SA.21.GA: 'Ancient Mesopotamian Potency Incantations' in Texts from Cuneiform Sources, II, 1967, p. 41 n. 28]" (Bullough, 1976, p. 56). The Gilgamesh Epic, dating from the second millennium B.C. suggested homosexual relations between its heroes (Kinsey, 1948). The earliest sets of Sumerian laws from Ur-Nammu (2110 B.C.), Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (1925 B.C.), Eshnunna (1800 B.C.) Hammurabe (1700 B.C.) and Assyria (1100 B.C.) made no general prohibition of homosexuality (Bullough, 1976). So, historical information about Mesopotamian religious, social, and legal customs suggests cultural approval for bisexuality. Abraham apparently fathered the Judaeo-Christian culture in the context of a larger polygamous bisexual culture. He and his nomadic family, originally from Haren, moved on to the more peaceful secluded hills of Canaan. There, his son Isaac fathered Jacob, who fathered twelve sons. The brothers sold one of their own, Joseph, into Egyptian slavery. Through a series of fortunate events he became Viceroy of Egypt under his close relatives, the Hyksos. Drought and famine hit Canaan, so Jacob moved his family to join Joseph in Egypt. They settled in Goshen near the Hyksos capital, Avaris, where they prospered and multiplied into a strong people, the Hebrews. By then, they culturally resembled their benefactors and relatives, the Hyksos (Epstein, 1959). Egyptian Abuse The Hebrews' good fortune ended in 1580 B.C., when the Ahmose overthrew the Hyksos. The Ahmose suspected a Hebrew alliance with the Hyksos, and so brutally subjugated them as well (Epstein, 1959). Ancient Egyptian soldiers customarily raped the men they conquered and cut off their genitals to lower their status to that of women (Bailey, 1955; Bullough, 1976; McNeill, 1976). The ancient Egyptian soldiers probably raped the Hebrew men when subjugated, as was their custom. Subsequently, Thothmes III (1485-1450 B.C.) oppressed the surviving Hebrews with cruel, forced building projects (Epstein, 1959). The Egyptians "made their lives bitter with hard service" (Exodus 1:13). As the Hebrew population grew over the years, the Egyptians felt increasingly threatened by their strength. "Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, 'Every son that is born to the Hebrews you shall cast into the Nile, but you shall let every daughter live'" (Exodus 1:22). Moses was born under these abusive conditions, rescued from the Nile by an Egyptian princess, and educated at Pharaoh's court. Moses became so angry at the site of an Egyptian abusing a Hebrew male, that he killed the Egyptian and had to flee for his own life to Midian. Thothmes III died. "The revolt of the Egyptian Semitic subject-states which followed his death, involving the whole of Syria and Palestine, led his son and successor Amenophis II (1450-1421) to institute the most ruthless measures against the Hebrew slaves" (Epstein, 1959, p. 15). When Moses returned to Egypt in 1448, he found his people threatened with annihilation and crying out to their God for help (Epstein, 1959). For over a century, the Hebrews suffered the abuses of Egyptian subjugation, which included forced labor, physical abuses, probable rape and emasculation, and male infanticide. Sexual, physical, and emotional abuse probably contributed to development of cultural erotophobia. Forced to submit to their masters' cruel sexual desires, the Hebrews may have learned to fear sexuality as evil and dangerous, especially homosexuality. The Hebrews therefore came to limit their sexual behavior to only procreation, which became even more important as male infanticide threatened them with extinction (Churchill, 1967). The Erotophobic Exodus In 1447 B.C., Moses led the Hebrew exodus from Egypt. During their slavery, the Hebrews had become different in many ways from their relatively unoppressed neighbors. These differences are reflected in the Mosaic laws, the Torah. In contrast with other ancient nations' codes that concerned themselves mainly with the protection of property, the Torah emphasizes protecting the person. It restricts the way powerful men could treat those less powerful. Even slaves were freed if injured and could run away from an abusive master (Epstein, 1959). The Torah restricted sexual behavior much more that other codes. Of 36 crimes punished by death, 16 involved sexual behavior (Churchill, 1967). One of them referred to homosexual behavior. "If a man lies with a male as with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination; they shall be put to death, their blood is upon them" (Leviticus 20:13). No mention is made of males having peer or mentoring sexual relations with each other. The abomination was for a man to denigrate another man to the status of a woman. Mosaic laws even justified homicide in defending against a male homosexual advance. Perhaps being raped, emasculated, and demoted to the status of women by Egyptian masters had been experienced as an abomination by Hebrew men; and the resulting cultural erotophobia, including homophobia, became encoded in the Torah. Vicissitudes in Canaan When the Hebrews first approached Canaan, it was still ruled by Egypt. As a nation of slaves, the Hebrews were still too fearful and undisciplined to enter the land, so wandered in the wilderness for forty years, gave birth to a strong young army, and became united under Moses and Joshua. When they approached Canaan the second time, the Egyptian Empire was declining and Canaan was in turmoil (Epstein, 1959). The once peaceful Hebrews attacked the Canaanites with merciless violence. When the Hebrews conquered Canaan, they slaughtered almost all of its inhabitants--men, women, children, and animals. Leviticus associates homosexual acts with other offensive heathen practices of Egypt and Canaan (Bailey, 1955). Perhaps the Hebrews were outraged at bisexual Canaanite customs that reminded them of traumatic experience with the Egyptians. When settled in Canaan, the Hebrews gradually became more secure. The twelve tribes gave way to anarchy. The Hebrews gradually assimilated the customs of the Canaanites they had not conquered, which included sensuous fertility cults and other "degrading" practices (Epstein, 1959). During this period, "Every man did what was right in his own eyes" (Judges 17:6). Threatened by Philistine aggression, the last of twelve judges, Samuel, set up a king. Samuel feared that a king could become a tyrant, so wrote a constitution which limited the king's power (Epstein, 1959). The Hebrews had good reason to mistrust authority when they recalled Egypt, and continued to use law to protect themselves from abuse. The first Hebrew king, Saul, was anointed in 1025 B.C. and freed the Hebrews from the Philistines (Epstein, 1959). David proved his military prowess by slaying 200 Philistines. He then "brought their foreskins, which were given in full number to the king, that he might become the king's son-in-law" (I Samuel 18:27). This Hebrew custom of maiming the phalli of the men they conquered continued for a thousand years (Epstein, 1959). Perhaps this custom developed as a retaliatory response to prior military male rape. The story of David and Jonathan may exemplify close Hebrew male relationships during a period of relative national security. Saul's son, Jonathan, took a liking to David, "a youth, ruddy and comely in appearance" (I Samuel 17:4). "The soul of Jonathan was knit to the soul of David...Jonathan made a covenant with David, because he loved him as his own soul. And Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that was upon him, and gave it to David, and his armor, and even his sword and his bow and his girdle" (I Samuel 18:1-4). Later, when Saul became jealous of David's military success and tried to kill him, Jonathan met him secretly in a field. "They kissed one another, and wept with one another, until David recovered himself (or exceeded)" (I Samuel 20:41). After Jonathan was killed in battle, David lamented, "I am distressed for you, my brother Jonathan; very pleasant have you been to me; your love to me was wonderful, passing the love of women" (II Samuel 1:26). Jonathan and David's relationship appears similar to the heroic homosexual peer relationships described in the cultures surrounding Israel at the time. However, the erotic nature of David and Jonathan's intense love relationship is speculative. King David (1012-972) and his son Solomon (971-931) expanded the Kingdom of Israel and continued to assimilate foreign customs through polygamous intermarriage with surrounding peoples. At Solomon's death, the Kingdom split into Israel and Judah. The northern Israelites continued to assimilate bisexual practices. Before long, the Assyrian king, Sargon II, conquered the northern Kingdom and deported its people to the remotest parts of his empire, where they were assimilated (Epstein, 1959). A pattern emerges when reviewing Hebrew sexual practices while in Canaan. When politically secure, the Hebrews assimilated the sexual practices of the surrounding culture, even including phallic worship in their religious practices. Homosexual prostitutes had official rooms in the Jerusalem temple. Worshippers paid the temple to have sacred intercourse with these men (Vanggaard, 1969). However, when threatened by aggressors, the Hebrews repeatedly perceived the threat as God's punishment for those practices, and attempted religious reform. This meant returning to the homophobic sexual restrictions of the Torah. When secure again, though, sexual attitudes became more tolerant (Bullough, 1976). Babylonian Exile In 597 B.C., Babylonian King Nebudchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem and ordered his chief eunuch to pick the finest "youths without blemish, handsome and skillful in all wisdom...to serve in the king's palace" (Daniel, 1:4). Hebrews who remained in Jerusalem revolted in 586, so Nebudchadnezzar completely destroyed the city and deported the remaining Hebrews to Babylon (Epstein, 1959). There they faced the threat of assimilation into the bisexual Babylonian culture, which had homosexual prostitutes (Tannahill, 1980). For generations the judges, prophets, priests, psalmists, and sages had tried to win the Hebrews' allegiance to the teachings of the Torah. During times of relative security, the people had turned a deaf ear to these exhortations and had preferred the sensuous cults of their neighbors, until the Babylonian exile, when their whole life underwent a radical change. Brooding over their tragic experiences, they came to believe that they were suffering God's punishment for forsaking the Torah and indulging in the sensuous practices of the heathens around them. They felt their only hope for survival was a return to the way of life prescribed in the Torah. A chastened and penitent people surrendered themselves to the direction of Ezekiel, the first in a long line of scribes who exhorted the exiles to maintain sexual purity in spite of the orgiastic practices of their captors. By the close of the exile, the Hebrews devoutly adhered to the Torah, which prevented their assimilation into the Babylonian culture and insured their survival as a people. Out of exile and affliction emerged a new people - the Jews (Epstein, 1959). Persian Revival In 538 B.C., Babylon fell to Cyrus of Persia, who sent 42,000 Jews to rebuild Jerusalem. Before long, they became discouraged, intermarried with neighbors, and adopted heathen customs. However, the exiles remaining in Babylon continued to see themselves as a people on the brink of extinction if they adopted heathen ways. Their will to survive drove them to religious, economic and political achievement. Many of them, like Daniel and Esther, achieved positions of wealth and influence. One of the high ranking Babylonian Jewry, Ezra, armed with a warrant from Artaxerxes I (464-424) and accompanied by priests, Levites, and other exiles, returned to Jerusalem to reform the people and reestablish the rule of the Torah. Nehemiah joined him in twelve years, and together they enthroned the Torah in the minds and hearts of the Jews throughout the Persian Empire. Scribes taught the Torah to the common people, and in times of peace, gradually relaxed the severity of its laws, bringing them more into harmony with human wants (Epstein, 1959). So, for the 200 years of Persian rule, the Jews solidified their identity through close adherence to the Torah and regained their homeland. Pederastic Greeks In 333 B.C., Alexander the Great added Palestine to the Greek Empire. Alexander was both a military genius and probably homosexual. He was indifferent to his mother's attempt to interest him in women, but instead preferred his apparent lover, Hephaestion (Hardman, 1993). Historic sources indicate that the ancient Greek adolescent male normally entered a passive homosexual relationship with an adult man until mature, when, as a young adult, he would give up his passive role and begin an active role with a female wife and with an adolescent beloved male (Cantarella, 1992). The following history of how homosexuality enhanced Greek military life may further contribute to understanding how it simultaneously reinforced Hebrew subjects' homophobia. Dorian Greeks invaded the Greek mainland from the northwest in about 1200 B.C., and proceeded to conquer Crete, Asia Minor and Sicily by about 1000 B.C. The rest of the Greeks admired them for the way they developed their young men. Pederasty was integrated into Dorian upbringing. "Plutarch tells that when Spartan boys were twelve years old, 'then those who are the lovers of noble young boys would seek their company'" (Vanggaard, 1969, p. 37). From then on, the older man was responsible for the boy's development and conduct, as well as for the well being of his own wife and family. Men who did not marry and raise a family were not considered suitable as lovers for boys (Vanggaard, 1969). A young Spartan man could engage in three types of sexual relationships prior to marriage: 1) casual sex with peers, 2) the more intense relationship with an older male lover, and 3) an anal relationship with an unmarried girl (Dover, 1978). Spartan and Cretan societies were organized like an army in training, with the male population segregated into messes and barracks. The older men trained their boy lovers to be soldiers. When the boy reached age 18 and was then old enough to serve in battle, he and his lover could find themselves fighting side by side (Dover, 1978). "Plato said, 'A handful of lovers and loved ones, fighting shoulder to shoulder, could rout a whole army'" (Tannahill, 1980, p. 90). The older man wished to excel in the presence of his young lover, to win his esteem and love. The younger man, for his part, tried hard to live up to the example set by the older, to gain his approval. Their intense relationship spurred their courage and valor in battle (Dover, 1978). From 669 B.C. to 371 B.C., when defeated by the Thebans at Leutra, Sparta lost only one battle. Their valor gained the victory for the vastly outnumbered Greeks over the Persians in 479 B.C. (Vanggaard, 1969). The backbone of the Theban army that conquered Sparta in 371 was known as the Sacred Band of Thebes. Composed entirely of pairs of lovers who fought side by side, the Sacred Band was undefeated until overwhelmed in 338 B.C. by the massive forces of Phillip of Macedonia at Cheironeia. They lay dead, pair by pair, on the battlefield (Vanggaard, 1969). Two Greek writers, Xenophon and Euboulos, wrote about events that further illustrate Greek attitudes about homosexuality. In his Anabasis, Xenophon described how, in 401 B.C., he led 10,000 Greeks home from Persia where they had been mercenaries for Cyrus the Younger. The march was arduous. The soldiers, at a difficult pass, were ordered to throw away most of their booty. They complied, except where a man had smuggled in with him a handsome boy or a woman. Later, Xenophon wrote that one of his generals, Clearchus, enjoyed fighting so much that he was just as willing to spend money on warfare as on a boy or some other form of entertainment (Vanggaard, 1969). Dover writes, "Euboulos, a comic poet of the fourth century, said of the Greeks who spent ten long years in capturing Troy (fr. 120): 'No one ever set eyes on a single hetaira, they wanked themselves for ten years. It was a poor sort of campaigne: for the capture of one city, they went home with arses much wider than the gates of the city that they took.' The implication that the male anus serves, faute de mieux, like masturbation, when men are kept together without women for a long time, is a humorous motif common to most cultures" (Dover, 1978, p. 135). In summary, the Greek military homosexuality enhanced its strength and effectiveness. Under Alexander the Great, the Greeks developed the most powerful military force of its time in the West. How did Alexander's acquisition of Palestine in 333 B.C. reinforce Hebrew homophobia? Hellenistic Holocaust: Sodom and Gomorrah Revisited After Alexander the Great conquered Palestine, he let the Jews continue their way of life much unchanged. After his death, the Greek Empire was divided into three sections by his generals. The Egyptian Ptolemies took control of Palestine for fifty years and continued to let the Jews live as they wished. Secure, the Egyptian Jews became so Hellenized that the Torah had to be translated into Greek so that common Jews could read it (Epstein, 1959). Favorable conditions came to an end in about 275 B.C., though, when the Greek Seleucids began to fight the Egyptian Ptolemies for control of Palestine. For over a century, the rival warring armies trampled on Palestine and the Jews. Institutional Jewish religious life declined and nearly disappeared (Epstein, 1959). In 198 B.C., Antiocus III, a Seleucid, gained control and let the Jews reestablish their own ruling body, the Sanhedrin. The laws of the Torah were once again taught and enforced. However, many Hellenistic cities sprang up in Palestine and brought Jews and Greeks together commercially and socially. Secure again, the Jews let Greek ideas and practices infiltrate Jewish society. "It was a debased kind of Hellenism, decadent, wily, voluptuous, such as was purveyed by the soldier, the trader, the slave dealer, and the brothel keeper" (Epstein, 1959, p. 90). Greek pederasty flourished. Jewish religious and moral life declined. Biblical ordinances were disregarded, the Sabbath was desecrated, and even circumcision was neglected. Jewish youth stripped naked for Greek athletic games (Epstein, 1959). Life became even worse for adherents to the Torah with the accession of Antiochus IV (175-164), a megalomaniac who titled himself the "Evident God" and tried to impose Greek culture on all of his subjects. Many Jews cooperated and tried to Hellenize Judea by force. They believed that security depended upon integration with the dominant Greek culture. All Jewish religious practices, including circumcision, were prohibited on penalty of death. Copies of the Torah were destroyed, and anyone caught possessing a copy was killed. The Temple was converted to the worship of the Olympian Zeus, with swine's flesh offered on its altar and prostitution established within its precincts (Epstein, 1959). Many Jews refused to submit and fled for refuge, or were killed. Mattathias, an aging Hasmonean priest, soon led a war to defend the Torah and establish a self-governing state. His five sons followed his lead. One of them, Judas Maccabeus, cleared Jerusalem of the enemy and restored the religion of the Torah in the temple in 165 B.C. The Maccabeans gradually gained control over Judea and by 143 B.C., established it as an independent state under the last son, Simon (Epstein, 1959). How did this conflict with Greek culture influence Jewish thinking about homosexuality? Whereas the Greeks regarded the phallus and pederasty as sacred, and the semen as the carrier of virtue; the Jews at that time saw the phallus as hideous, and semen as unclean (Vanggaard, 1969). During the Greek occupation of Palestine, the Hebrews reinterpreted the Sodom and Gomorrah story. This illustrates how Greek abuse reinforced Jewish homophobia and influenced religious belief. Modern archaeological research indicates that Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by an earthquake, lightning, and fire. The conflagration was spread by the ignition of bituminous gases in the local geological formations. The cities were then submerged under the waters of the Dead Sea. At the time, the disaster was attributed to supernatural causes--a divine punishment for human wickedness (Hyde, 1970). Originally the "sin of Sodom" was its inhospitality to strangers (McNeill, 1976). After being trampled upon for over a century by pederastic Greek armies, the Jews began to believe and teach that the Greek form of homosexuality, pederasty, was the wickedness that caused Sodom's destruction. Inhospitality was just a characteristic of those who committed sodomy. "2 Enoch explicitly identifies the sin of Sodom with the pederasty of Hellenic society: 'This place is prepared for those who dishonor God, who on earth practice the sin against nature, which is child corruption after the Sodomitic fashion'" (McNeill, 1976, p. 72). Nearly 200 years of abusive Greek dominance had reinforced Hebrew homophobia. Brief Hebrew Independence The Second Hebrew Commonwealth enjoyed almost a century of independence and prospered under Simon. However, his son, John Hyrcanus (135-104), precipitated internal strife between the leading parties, the scholarly Pharisees and the political Sadducees, by hiring heathen mercenaries to expand national boundaries. Conquered men were forcibly circumcised at sword point. The country was full of warfare, rebellion, and bloodshed. Hyrcanus' son, Jannaeus (103-76), continued to expand the kingdom to Solomonic size, but had to massacre and exile opposing Pharisees in order to do so. After Jannaeus died, his wife, Alexandra, recalled the Pharisees, who gained control of the Sanhedrin and governed in peace until her death in 67 B.C. Her two sons, struggling for the throne, both appealed to Rome for help. Pompey answered with a military advance and conquered Judea in 63 B.C., making it a Roman province under Hyrcanus. However, Antipar, one of the Edomites who had been forcibly circumcised by John Hyrcanus, made friends with Caesar in Rome and was appointed Procurator of Judea in 48 B.C. His son, Herod, defeated the Hasmonean Dynasty and became Senate King of Judea in 39 BC. (Epstein, 1959). What were Roman homosexual practices and how did Roman dominance contribute to Judaeo-Christian homophobia? The Roman Era The Roman Republic and Empire approved of bisexuality from about the sixth century B.C. until about the fourth century A.D., when Judaeo-Christian homophobia gained cultural dominance. The open homosexuality of the emperors and the military illustrate Roman attitudes prior to the fourth century A.D. In the early Republic, Roman males were expected to be sexually aggressive and dominant. Females, ones own male and female slaves, and male and female prostitutes were approved passive partners. "... the Roman male was condemned to a life of maleness, the maleness of a sexual thug who, by imposing his desires on women and 'pueri' (boys), his enemies and those who had wronged him, proved his sexual potency, indomitable character and social muscle to himself and to others" (Cantarella, 1992, p. 220). Edward Gibbon, author of History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, "...observed that 'of the first fifteen emperors, Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct,' meaning heterosexual" (Boswell, 1980, p.61). The Roman Empire was ruled for nearly 200 years by men whose homosexual behavior was obvious enough to be recorded for posterity. Many of the emperors gained their power by submitting to the advances of the preceding ruler. Augustus gratified Julius, Otho had relations with Nero, and Hadrian ascended because of Trajan's love for him (Boswell, 1980). In the early Roman Empire, pederastic relationships were honorable. For example, Emperor Hadrian ruled productively from 117 to 138 A.D. and was considered one of the five best emperors. When his young Greek lover, Antinous, accidentally drowned in the Nile, grief-stricken Hadrian deified him, founded a city in his name, erected statues of him throughout the Empire, and instituted athletic games that lasted 200 years, all to honor his memory (Boswell, 1980). There was a strong aversion to homosexual relationships between equals because the passive role was associated with lower status and relegated to women, boys, and slaves. Any Roman who took the passive role might have to take a demotion in status with it. For example, Julius Caesar incurred much disrespect for taking the passive role with Nicomedes, the King of Bithynia. "Suetonius says that Dolabella called Caesar 'the queen's rival'; his partner in the consulship described him in an edict as 'the queen of Bithynia'; his soldiers at the triumph held in honor of his conquest of Gaul chanted, 'Caesar conquered Gaul; Nicomedes, Caesar'; Curio the Elder called him 'every man's wife and every woman's husband'" (Boswell, 1980, p. 75). This aversion to the passive sexual role gradually decreased, and pederasty gave way to more reciprocal relations, at least in the higher classes. Marriage between men was common and legal, involving all the familial and ceremonial trappings of a heterosexual wedding. The examples of two emperors will suffice (Boswell, 1980). Nero married two men in secession in public ceremonies. These men were given the honors of an empress. The second, Sporus, accompanied Nero at public functions where Nero would embrace him affectionately. Sporus stood by Nero the rest of his life (Boswell, 1980). Emperor Elagabalus defended his preference for the passive homosexual role by exiling a jurist who spoke out against it. He preferred men with large phalli, and dispatched emissaries throughout the Empire to find them. He visited public bathhouses to personally inspect men and combed the docks at night. After Elagabalus married an athlete from Smyrna, any man who wished to be advanced at court had to appear to have a husband (Boswell, 1980). The Roman military brutalized Greek pederasty by turning what had been a mentoring love relationship into a servile one. In conquests, Roman soldiers captured and enslaved youth to carry their supplies, wait upon them, and satisfy their sexual desires. Roman soldiers were not allowed to force each other for sexual gratification. Instead, they raped conquered men and women (Rossman, 1976). Roman Brutality: The Traumatic Birth of Christianity The Roman military forced conquered men and women to gratify their sexual desires (Boswell, 1980). Jewish social groups responded to Roman abuse in ways that may be analogous to the five ways children may respond when abused by their parents. Children may try to manage the situation, please parents with perfection, fight back, escape, and/or withdraw. Five Jewish groups--Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, Apocalyptics, and Essenes apparently exemplified these responses to abuse on a group rather than individual level. Pharisees strove for perfection, excelled in moral virtue, and taught the Torah. They were dispersed throughout Europe when Rome destroyed Jerusalem. Sadducees tried to manage the government, and were crushed by King Herod. Zealots tried to fight Roman oppression, but only succeeded in provoking Roman retaliation. Jews who could see no earthly escape from their tribulations and sufferings became Apocalyptics, who predicted that a divine catastrophe would end the abusive temporal order, as the plagues had done in Egypt, and a holy Israel would be restored under the Messiah's rule. Essenes withdrew into asceticism near the Dead Sea. They adhered strictly to the Torah and renounced all sexual behavior. They died, but their asceticism passed on to the early Christians, many of whom became monks, nuns, and hermits. The Essenes and Apocalyptics held in common a belief in the depraved nature of man and the soon coming of a Messiah who would save those who kept away from heathen homosexual impurities, and destroy those who did not, their oppressors. These two groups gave birth to Christianity (Epstein, 1959). The Roman Procurators' of Judea abused their power and did everything possible to make their Jewish subjects miserable. "Most notorious among these procurators was Pilatus. His administration (26 C.E.-36 C.E.) was characterized by corruption, violence, robberies, and continuous executions, without even the form of a trial" (Epstein, 1959, p. 106). He violated elementary human rights, desecrated the city and plundered the temple. He made the Sanhedrin arrest any persons suspected of plotting against Rome and turn them over to him for judgement. His atrocities were exceeded only by his Emperor, Caligula, a sadistic megalomaniac who demanded his subjects' worship (Epstein, 1959). Fearing that Jesus would anger the Romans with his immense following and claim to be the King of the Jews, the Sanhedrin turned him over to Pilatus, who crucified him. Disillusioned, his followers turned to the Apocalyptic writings for an explanation, and reassured themselves by exalting him as the heavenly Messiah who would return soon as a supernatural ruler. Thus arose the Judaeo-Christian sect (Epstein, 1959). Emperor Hadrian tried to force the Palestine Jews into cultural conformity. When they revolted, he crushed them in 135 A.D. and scattered them all over the Empire. Judaeo-Christians renounced their Jewish practices and went underground to escape persecution (Epstein, 1959). Homophobia: A Judaic Contribution to the Judaeo-Christian Culture In summary, the Hebrews were repeatedly defeated, raped, and subjugated by dominant neighboring bisexual nations. During periods of relative security, the Hebrews eased sexual restrictions; but with each defeat, they returned to the guidelines of the Torah and became more homophobic. The homosexuality that was celebrated by their enemies was perceived as an abomination by Judaeo-Christians. They viewed man as a weak, helpless creature with inborn evil tendencies, whose greatest weakness was desire for homosexual pleasure with another man. Those urges made him a helpless victim in the hands of Satan (Bullough, 1976). Perhaps Satan came to serve as a symbolic collective representation of their prior abusive oppressors--the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans. This homophobia was incorporated by the Judaeo-Christians into Apocalyptic Christianity, which was welcomed by the other oppressed and enslaved peoples of the Roman Empire, who had no other earthly hope. The Rise of Christianity and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire At the time of Christianity's birth in Palestine, the Roman Empire controlled the entire Mediterranean Basin. The empire's socioeconomic stratification was typical of the Classical civilizations, with gross inequity in the distribution of wealth. The rulers, nobility, priests, and military leaders were at the top; the merchants were in the middle; and the vast majority of people worked in agriculture and crafts. Though some of these were free, most were serfs and slaves who supported the upper classes by their toil. Their oppressed lives were short and miserable, with no hope of temporal improvements (Stavrianos, 1970). Subjugated Greek and Latin peoples already had developed ascetic ideals and practices (Bullough, 1976). Apocalyptic Christianity acknowledged the plight of the oppressed masses and promised that a soon returning Messiah would end Roman oppression and establish a divine utopia. As such, Christianity was welcomed by the masses of peasants, serfs, and slaves (Churchill, 1967). All of the Christian apostles were tortured and killed by the Romans except John, who was tortured and exiled. Many other early Christians were persecuted, tortured and martyred during Christianity's first few centuries (Churchill, 1967). Paul was perhaps the most influential Judaeo-Christian missionary to Greece and Rome. He spread Judaeo-Christian homophobia to the abused masses with this description of their Roman oppressors: "God gave them up to dishonorable passions. Their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural, and the men likewise gave up natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another, men committing shameless acts with men and receiving in their own persons the due penalty for their error" (Roman 1:26,27). Whereas the Jews of the Diaspora did not incorporate the homosexuality reinterpretation of the Sodom story into their Talmudic writings to any great extent, early Christian fathers accepted it and found solace in predicting that their oppressors would have the same fate as the Sodomites. Philo and Josephus homosexualized the Sodom account through their writings in the first century A.D. Philo, in De Abrahamo, read all the sexual practices of first century Alexandria into his account of Sodom: "'Not only in their mad lust for women did they violate the marriages of their neighbors, but also men mounted males without respect for the sex nature which the active partner shares with the passive, and so when they tried to beget children they were discovered to be incapable of any but a sterile seed. Yet the discovery availed them not, so much stronger was the force of their lust which mastered them, as little by little they accustomed those who were by nature men to play the part of women, they saddled them with the formidable curse of a female disease. For not only did they emasculate their bodies, but they worked a further degeneration in their souls, and, so far as in them lay, were corrupting the whole of mankind'" (McNeill, 1976, p. 72,73). Reaction to prior Hebrew subjugation, rape, emasculation, and genocide seems apparent in this description of early Judaeo-Christian homophobia. Barbarian Rape From the third to the sixth centuries, the Western Roman Empire crumbled under the onslaught of Germanic, Iranian, Balto-Slavic, Viking, and Turco-Mongol barbarians (Stavrianos, 1970). Barbarians raped men and women to assert their dominance (Boswell, 1980). Suffering from the ravages of warfare and political instability increased Christianity's appeal. By the end of the third century, not only peasants and slaves, but even Roman emperors were apparently hoping to restore order and security in what remained of the Empire by adhering to Judaeo-Christian principles (Churchill, 1967). In response to repeated defeats and rapes by Barbarians, the third century A.D. Romans gradually became homophobic. Emperor Constantine ended the persecution of Christians and gave the religion official status, but did not suppress homosexuality because he needed the support of his bisexual military (Tannahill, 1980). Emperor Alexander Severus (208-235) was raised in an atmosphere of sexual renunciation by his Christian mother. He followed the lunatic sex maniac, Heliogabalus, in imperial succession and included deportation for homosexual behavior among his moral reforms. Emperor Phillip ruled against male prostitution in 249. A century later Christian Constantius ordered that a man behaving in a womanly fashion be killed by the sword (Churchill, 1967). Roman homophobia continued to increase. In 390, Valentinian II, Theodosius, and Arcadius decreed, "'All persons who have the shameful custom of condemning a man's body, acting the part of a woman's, to the sufferance of an alien sex (for they appear not to be different from women) shall expiate a crime of this kind in avenging flames.' Cod. Theod. ix; vii.6; The Theodosian Code, trans. Clyde Pharr (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952) p. 232" (McNeill, 1976, p. 77). This was not just an idle threat. When Emperor Theodosius' governor at Thessalonika arrested and jailed a popular charioteer for a minor homosexual offense, the Thessalonikans rioted and killed the governor. Theodosius, disguising his wrath, invited the Thessalonikans to games in their stadium. He hid soldiers in the stands. When the spectators were assembled, he ordered their massacre. More than 7000 were slain (Crompton, 1978). Christianized Roman emperors eventually saw homosexual practices as a threat to the survival of their empire. Homosexuality took on a fiendish and traitorous quality. Christians, who had in past years suffered persecution and bloodshed at the hands of bisexual pagan Romans, now perpetrated persecution and bloodshed against homosexuals (Churchill, 1967). Why had the Christian emperors become so homophobic? Earlier, Hebrews had become homophobic in response to homosexual rape. Now, Judaeo-Christian Romans were being raped. The Germanic barbarians who were conquering the Western Roman Empire maintained their warrior status by taking the active, penetrating homosexual role and forced younger men, captives, and slaves to take the passive female role (Boswell, 1980). The Church responded to barbaric sexual abuses with increased asceticism and homophobia. In the West, St. Augustine defined the sin against nature as any sexual behavior that did not lead directly to conception (Bullough, 1976). St. Basil promulgated the most influential monastic rule for the Eastern Church in the fourth century. He believed that sex was a very dangerous capital sin. His homophobia is evident in a passage from his treatise, De renuntiatione saeculi: "If thou art young in either body or mind, shun the company of other young men and avoid them as thou wouldest a flame. For through them the enemy has kindled the desires of many and then handed them over to eternal fire, hurling them into the vile pit of the five cities under the pretence of spiritual love...At meals take a seat far from other young men. In lying down to sleep, let not their clothes be near thine, but rather have an old man between you. When a young man converses with thee, or sings psalms facing thee, answer him with eyes cast down, lest perhaps by gazing at his face thou receive a seed of desire sown by the enemy and reap sheaves of corruption and ruin. Whether in the house or in a place where there is no one to see your actions, be not found in his company under the pretence either of studying the divine oracles or of any other business whatever, however necessary.' Trans., W. K. L. Clarke, The Ascetic Works of Saint Basil (London, 1925) p. 66" (Bailey, 1955, p. 85). By the end of the fifth century the Germanic barbarians had demolished the Western Roman Empire. The Visigoths sacked Rome in 410 and eventually settled in Spain, and were followed by the Huns, who shattered Roman control in the western provinces. In 455, the Vandals ransacked Rome again. Romulus Augustulus, the last Western Roman emperor, was deposed in 476, and Germanic kingdoms replaced the Western Empire (Stavrianos, 1970). The Church remained, more ascetic and homophobic than ever, and took responsibility for education and social welfare in Western Europe. Gradually, over the next few centuries, the Church converted the barbarians and gained control over their sexuality through Canon law, ecclesiastical courts, and the penitential system, which will be described later (Bullough, 1976). Codification and Castration in the Eastern Roman Empire With the barbarian onslaught in the West, the center of the Roman Empire moved from Rome to Constantinople, where Emperor Justinian (527-565) assumed the role of temporal Pope and fought to reestablish the Roman Empire. Threatened by famines, earthquakes, plagues, and other natural disasters, as well as continued barbarian attacks, he blamed homosexuality for incurring God's wrath and all the Empire's troubles. "In 538 A.D., he issued Novel 77...'Since certain men, seized by diabolical incitement, practice among themselves the most disgraceful lusts, and act contrary to nature; we enjoin them to take to heart the fear of God and the judgment to come, and to abstain from such-like diabolical and unlawful lusts, so that they may not be visited by the just wrath of God on account of those impious acts with the results that cities perish with all their inhabitants...For because of such crimes there are famines, earthquakes, and pestilences'" (Bullough, 1976, p. 333). Offenders were tortured, mutilated, castrated, and dragged through the streets until dead. Political enemies were defamed and executed on charges of sodomy or pederasty. Justinian's code became the model for subsequent laws against homosexuality in Judaeo-Christian states for the next 1300 years (Bullough, 1976). Eunuchs were used extensively in Byzantium. They were ineligible to become Emperor, so they were no threat to him. He appointed them to the highest government and military offices for protection from rivals. After castrating slaves within the Empire became illegal, eunuchs were imported from surrounding barbaric countries where war captives were castrated for this purpose. A eunuch was considered to be homosexual, a notion that was reinforced by Justinian's punishment for homosexual behavior, castration (Bullough, 1976). When castrated, eunuchs lost dominant masculine status and role, and became subordinate, like homosexual males, and females. The Middle Ages: More Barbarians More barbarian invasions smashed Justinian's imperial dreams. The Germanic Lombards invaded Italy in 568 and Moslems made inroads into Spain (Stavrianos, 1970). Spanish Visigoths, unlike other seventh century barbarians, needed Church support in fighting back Moslem invasions. The Islamic raids were both a homosexual and a political threat. Visigoth King Egica (687-701) asked the Church Council of Toledo (693) for advice on how to deal with homosexuality, and enforced the Council's condemnation with a death penalty (Bullough, 1976). Wave after wave of barbarians invaded, conquered, and settled in Europe. Other Germanic barbarians accepted the Church's control of their sexual behavior more slowly than had the Visigoths. The Church gradually introduced the penitential system during the Middle Ages. Converts were encouraged to confess their violent, idolatrous, and sexual sins to the monks, who prescribed a redemptive penance. At first homosexual behavior was treated much like other nonreproductive forms of fornication. Each homosexual behavior, from kissing to the various ways of achieving orgasm, was spelled out in detail and assigned a specific penance. Through a millennium of proselytizing and penitence, the Church gradually gained control of the settled barbarians' sexual behavior (Bullough, 1976). By the eighth century, the Carolingian dynasty was gaining control of Western Europe. Charlemagne (768-814) conquered the Moslems in Spain, the Saxons in Germany, the Avars in Hungary, and the Lombards in Italy to be crowned "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III in 800 (Stavrianos, 1970). He issued secular laws against deviant sexual behavior, but these were merely guidelines to the clergy in administering penances. Outside of Spain, homosexual behavior remained under the control of the Church's court (Bullough, 1976). During the ninth and tenth centuries, Charlemagne's Empire fell under the impact of Moslem, Magyar and Viking assaults. Tenth century Western Europe was a shambles. Moslem pirates conquered Crete and Sicily, and raided the Mediterranean Coast. The Magyars invaded from Central Asia. The Vikings, or Normans, from Norway and Denmark raided Iceland, Greenland, and North America (Stavrianos, 1970). The vernacular Scandinavian literature of this period suggests that homosexual intercourse was common, but warriors avoided getting a reputation for taking the passive role. Common Icelandic proverbs reflect assaultive Viking homosexual behavior by equating male sexual passivity with a failure to defend oneself in battle (Boswell, 1980). Through the eighth and ninth centuries, the Vikings raided the British Isles and the western coast of Europe, and even ravaged the Mediterranean coasts. Swedish Vikings took routes to the Caspian and Black Seas and attacked Eastern Europe. Vikings gained status by raping rivals. "Any one could rape a woman, they reasoned, but it took a real man to rape a man, especially a warrior" (Hardman, 1993, p. 181). For 200 years, Vikings raped, killed, and plundered, destroying countless monasteries and towns. "In the churches of the time was heard the prayer, 'From the wrath of the Northmen, O Lord, deliver us!'"(Stavrianos, 1970, p. 226). By the end of the tenth century, the Judaeo-Christian culture in Western Europe lay politically devastated. For seven centuries, barbarians had invaded, raped, plundered, and killed. The Church survived, homophobic and withdrawn in the asceticism of its monastic orders. Once again, as the last wave of barbarians settled down, the Church gradually converted them and extended its influence over their lives. Through Canon law, Church courts, and the monastic penitential system, Christians eventually gained control over the sexuality of the barbarians who had sexually abused them, and punished any further homosexual behavior. Mamlukes, a high social order of slaves trained to be rulers, leaders, and warriors, came to prominence in tenth century Egypt, as well as other Islamic territories. This elite military caste wielded great power in the Arab world until defeated by Napoleon in 1798. The all-male society was based on the homosexual relationship between the master and his acquired slave boy, who he educated to succeed him. European men traveling in Arab lands were reportedly often robbed, stripped, and raped (Hardman, 1993). The Crusades and Christian Expansionism From the fourth to the tenth centuries, the Judaeo-Christian culture had been invaded by Germanics, Magyars, Vikings, and Moslems, but from the tenth to the fourteenth century, this pattern reversed as Western Europe took the offensive on all fronts (Stavrianos, 1970). Reports of homosexuality among the Moslems spurred Crusaders on as they fought Moslem intruders in Spain, Italy, Sicily and the Holy Land (Boswell, 1980). The German Teutonic Knights pressed eastward against the pagan Prussians (Stavrianos, 1970). By the middle of the eleventh century, Western Europe was recovering from the centuries of invasions and anarchy. As population and wealth increased, both the Church and state centralized their control. The Church's Canon law continued to be used to regulate sexual behavior until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the Christian beliefs were reset into secular law. Underlying these laws was a belief in the sin against nature, as expounded by Aquinas. Any nonprocreative sexual activity was considered unnatural, and therefore, worse than fornication, adultery, and incest (Bullough, 1976). The progression of Church influence was obvious in eleventh and twelfth century England. The Norman, William, conquered England in 1066. His sons, William Rufus and Robert, Duke of Normandy, were both openly homosexual at court. The Duke was said to have acquired his homosexual interests during his Crusades. William Rufus was mysteriously killed by an arrow while hunting in New Forrest (Hyde, 1970). In 1102, two years after William Rufus' reign, Henry I assembled a large council at Westminster for the reform of moral abuses. Two of the canons enacted condemned homosexuality. The first specified confession and penitence as necessary for absolution. The second was to be read every Sunday in all churches to inform all of the censure passed by the leaders of Church and State upon the vices of the last reign. The council recommended, "'EPIST iii. 62;...Concerning those who have committed the sin of Sodom either before or after the excommunication, not knowing that it had been promulgated, the sentence in both cases will be equal and similar if they confess and seek to do penance...It must be remembered that this sin has been publicly committed to such and extent that it scarcely makes anyone blush, and that many have fallen into it in ignorance of its gravity.' Text in Mign, P.L., clix, coll., 95-96" (Bailey, 1955, p. 125). English laws were very tolerant when compared with those passed at the same time by the Council of Napolouse (1120) in the Holy Land. The Crusaders had captured Jerusalem in 1099, but were still threatened with losing it. The Council passed 25 canons, most concerning sexual behavior. Four condemned homosexual behavior, and for the first time in medieval law, specified punishment by burning (Bullough, 1976). The Holy Land laws were more severe than the contemporary English ones for two apparent reasons. First, the Church was more powerful in Jerusalem, and second, the Christians there faced the immediate threat of homosexual assault from the Moslems. Medieval sexual attitudes appear to be full of contradictions. Officially, the Church gradually imposed its sexual repression on what had been a much more permissive barbaric society. Homosexuality eventually became feared, associated with heresy and treason, and punished (Bullough, 1976). Yet, many institutions, such as monasteries and knighthood, may have encouraged the very practice they condemned. Youth were trained for knighthood as groups of friends led by an older man who taught them to love each other. They often stayed together from age 10 until age 30, when they were expected to find wives. For 20 years, they did everything together, including sleeping nude (Bullough, 1976). The ideals of knighthood were exemplified by a popular twelfth century story about Amis and Amile. These two knights' love and commitment to each other took precedence over all others. They made numerous self-sacrifices for each other's wellbeing (Boswell, 1980). Outsiders suspected knights of homosexuality. The Knights Templar, a military crusading order, was founded in the twelfth century to protect pilgrims visiting the Holy Land. Over the years, they built many houses, served as a bank for travelers, received many donations, and became a great financial power throughout Europe. Kings borrowed large sums of money from them, especially in France, and became jealous of their power. In 1307, French King Phillip IV, heavily indebted to the Templars, ordered their arrest on charges of heresy and sodomy. Allegedly, during initiation, a Templar knight had to kiss the receiving official's buttocks and submit to carnal copulation. Under torture, few knights admitted to homosexual behavior, though they confessed that it was allowed. By 1312, the most powerful crusading order of knights was destroyed (Bullough, 1976). As the Church gained control over every aspect of life in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, frustrated Europeans displaced their aggression and hostility by scapegoating heretics and witches. Deviant sexual behavior, a characteristic of Christendom's enemies, also denied Church authority, and so was associated with heresy. Dominican Inquisitors seized the property of suspected heretics and witches (Bullough, 1976). They were tortured into admissions of spitting on the cross, being buggered by Satan, and orgying together (Karlen, 1980). Once convicted, they were turned over by the Church to secular authorities for execution. Sexual overtones became associated with everything that medieval people feared (Bullough, 1976). Hundreds of years of violence and rape suffered by the people of the Judaeo-Christian culture during prior barbarian invasions may well have contributed to these fears. The Gnostic Manichees exemplify the Church's treatment of heretics. Under one name or another, the Gnostic Manichees had threatened Church teachings and supremacy since the first century A.D. By the thirteenth century, Gnostics had spread throughout Europe. Pope Innocent II launched a crusade of 500,000 men to wipe out this heresy. Its adherents, the Cathars, Adamites, Hussites, Waldensans, and Bulgarians were all charged with homosexuality as well as heresy, and then slaughtered or burned. The Bulgarians' reputation for practicing anal intercourse gave rise to the English slang term for it, buggery (Karlen, 1980). By the middle of the fourteenth century, even kings were no longer above the Church's homophobic influence. When the bisexual English monarch, Edward II, became too open about his affair with Pier Gaveston, his French consort; Queen Isabella and her lover, Roger Mortimer, imprisoned Edward II and tortured him to death by inserting a burning stake into his anus. His shrieks were heard beyond the castle walls and drove many to their knees in prayer for his soul (Hyde, 1970). By the end of the Middle Ages, the Church and State were closely associated. Deviance from one was considered deviance from the other as well, so that heresy became equated with treason. One characteristic thought to be shared by both heretics and traitors, such as barbarians and Moslems, was homosexuality, which became both a heretical sin and a traitorous crime, punishable by burning. These attributes of moral and social deviance have accompanied homosexual behavior to the present in the Judaeo-Christian culture (Churchill, 1967). From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, the people of the Judaeo-Christian culture struggled to regain control of their lives and lands. Seven centuries of barbaric violence and sexual abuse had devastated Western Europe and left the surviving Church very homophobic and ascetic. As it gradually gained control over sexuality and limited it to procreative activity, the population grew. Technological advances in all areas related to defense enabled Europeans to push back Moslems and other would-be invaders. Islamic Ottoman Turks: the Last Insult In the early fourteenth century A.D., the Ottoman Empire emerged from Asia Minor and conquered everyone in its path. By the seventeenth century, Ottomans controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea from Algiers in Africa to Venice, Italy, and even made inroads into Spain and Ireland before gradually declining toward its demise in the early twentieth century (Garraty, 1972). The Turks owed much of their success to the outstanding leadership of the first ten Islamic sultans and their military prowess. Early in the development of the empire, they instituted a system of military recruitment called the "devsirme," meaning child tribute. The Turkish army replenished and expanded its ranks as needed by conscripting the able-bodied Christian boys from conquered villages and forcibly converting them to Islam (Garraty, 1972). The soldiers who captured them also forced the boys to become their sexual partners (Rossman, 1976). The boys became slaves of the sultan, and were trained and used as he saw fit. They were not allowed to marry, have children, or own property. At their death, their possessions returned to the sultan. Eventually, the strength of the empire rested on these slaves, who were organized into what was known as the Kapi Kullari, or Slave Institution. Rigorously trained from their youth and totally dependent on the sultan, these slaves became the sultan's administrators throughout the empire and the backbone of the Ottoman army, the Janissaries (Garraty, 1972). Though the slaves were not allowed to marry, they were not celibate. Slave soldiers were rewarded with young Christian boys that they captured in each new city they conquered. The most handsome boys were often sent to the sultan and his slave administrators for their service and sexual pleasure. Thus, the system was continually replenished, and the Turks were literally supported by the Christians they conquered (Rossman, 1976). Parker Rossman describes the conquests of Mehmed II, the sultan who conquered Constantinople in 1453. "The Sultan inspired his troops to more conquests by promising them beautiful boys, and in each captured city he gave the sons of middle-class parents to his troops, leaving the lower class children to do the work, and kept the sons and daughters of the aristocracy for his own pleasure and purposes. He has been described as a 'pederast heroique' who celebrated his conquests in bed, and who spent most of his time in the company of boys under seventeen - except for his nights in the harem fathering children. As gifts to Muslim rulers in Africa and Asia he would often send as many as fifty young European boys at a time" (Rossman, 1976, p. 101). The sultan's armies conquered almost half of Europe, including the eastern capital of the Judaeo-Christian culture, Constantinople, and captured nearly a million of Europe's finest male youth. European visitors to Algiers brought back reports that nearly every Turkish soldier and sailor there had a boy who cooked for him and slept with him. Many of the boys had been captured during the piratical raids on Italy, Spain, and Ireland in the sixteenth century (Rossman, 1976). The Greek historian, Kritovoulos, wrote extensively about Sultan Muhmed II's conquest of Constantinople. After a long and arduous siege, the sultan addressed his army in preparation to conquer the city. First he commended them on their zealous efforts, valor, and manliness. Then he offered them the city's wealth, palaces, churches, homes, and people as reward for their conquest. He concluded, "'So you will gain in many ways, in enjoyment, and service, and wealth. And you will have boys, too, very many and very beautiful and of noble families...A great and populace city, the capital of the ancient Romans, which has attained the very pinnacle of good fortune and luck and glory - I give it now to you for spoil and plunder - unlimited wealth, men, women and children'" (Kritovoulos, 1954, p. 61). Following a fierce battle, the sultan's army gained entrance to the city, plundered, raped, and killed. "And well-born and beautiful boys were carried off" (Kritovoulos, 1954, p. 73). The sultan took his share of the spoils. Then "he chose out beautiful virgins and those of the best families, and the handsomest boys, some of whom he even bought from the soldiers" (Kritovoulos, 1954, p. 82). Two examples show how the Turks forced those they conquered to submit homosexually. In restoring Constantinople, Sultan Muhmet II considered making Lucas Notaras, a Christian, governor of the conquered city. Notaras had been Commander in Chief of the Byzantine army, and was one of the most distinguished of the surviving Byzantine dignitaries. To test Notaras' loyalty and submission, the sultan demanded that Notaras send his fourteen-year old son to the palace for Muhmet's sexual pleasure. When Notaras refused, the sultan ordered the father and son beheaded, the son first, with Notaras watching (Vanggaard, 1969). Russian sources accuse the Turks of taking "full advantage of the anal spasms" when killing a man on the battlefield. "It is, to be sure, effendi, a most devilish matter of expert timing" (Edwards, 1973, pp. 212-213). In summary, by the seventeenth century the Ottoman Turks built the most powerful empire in the West. Their administrative efficiency and military prowess depended on their Slave Institution, made up of captured Christian boys who were forced to convert to Islam, pederasty, and the service of the sultans (Garraty, 1972). Turks used homosexuality in their military to inspire conquest, cement their pederastic system of rank and command, and dominate their enemies--the people of the Judaeo-Christian culture (Rossman, 1976). Understandably, Christendom's intolerance for homosexuality, especially pederasty, increased with the Islamic Turkish onslaught. Homosexuality was equated with heresy and treason, punishable by death (Boswell, 1981). Caged in Western Europe with Islamic homosexual invasions penetrating their boundaries, Judaeo-Christians were horrified. In order to defend themselves, Westerners developed significant advances in technology, including shipping. Threatened directly by Turkish assaults, the Spanish led the escape by sea to explore previously unknown foreign lands, where they found more bisexual peoples. However, the Christian Spaniards now had technological military superiority. Rage at heathen homosexual practices, as well as greed and a desire for dominance, appear to have motivated and justified the Spanish slaughter, subjugation, exploitation, and Christianization of the people of the New World (Tannahill, 1980). The other Western European countries joined in the expansionistic competition. With advancing defensive technology, they were able to fight off the Turks and eventually explore, conquer, exploit, and Christianize the New World. "In short, Western society had reached the take-off point. It was ready to burst out, and when it did, it found the ocean ways clear, and it spread irresistibly over the entire globe" (Stavrianos, 1970, p. 340). CULTURAL RECOVERY The Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries: Revolt Against Church Authority and International Rivalry From the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, the people of the Judaeo-Christian culture revolted against oppressive Church authority in the Protestant Reformation, competed with each other for world dominance and exploitation, and defended themselves from the Ottoman Turks and each other. After 3000 years of repeated defeats and subjugations to more powerful cultures, the people of the Judaeo-Christian culture had apparently internalized the abusive nature of their oppressors. Europeans discovered, subjugated, and exploited weaker cultures around the world; and squandered fortunes in brutal warfare against each other. From 1520 to 1618, wars raged sporadically throughout Europe, but in 1618 the Thirty Years' War broke out, involving all of Europe. Monarchs hired generals and raised armies that preyed on peasants and townsmen--pillaging, raping, and killing. Every European country either tried to conquer its neighbors or feared being overrun. The Peace of Westphalia ended the war in 1648, except for France and Spain, who continued fighting each other until 1659. Germany lay in ruins. One-third of its population had died in war-related disasters. The other European nations were also devastated, and had agreed to the peace only out of sheer exhaustion. All resumed the competitive struggle to regain control of their lives, leading to further advances in science and the technology of defense (Garraty, 1972). Regarding homosexuality, moral controls shifted from the Church to the state in the sixteenth century. What had been sins against nature became crimes against nature. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1516-1556), a Spanish Hapsburg, decreed death by fire for homosexual behavior, as did Prussian law. French King Henry III (1551-1589) was too flagrant about his homosexuality and was murdered during the fight between the Catholics and the Huguenots. In England, King Henry VIII made homosexual behavior a crime in 1533. The first to be imprisoned for it was Rev. Nicholas Udall, headmaster at Eton, in 1541. He was soon released by influential friends, though, and appointed headmaster of the Westminster school. By remaining discreet about his bisexuality, James I, who came to the English throne in 1603, was able to rule effectively, provide an heir, and advance his male lovers to high positions. He authorized the King James Version of the Bible, which was published in 1611. Following his death, though, his last lover was executed (Bullough, 1976). As is evident form the preceding examples, European laws punishing homosexual behavior were inconsistently enforced. Generally, anal penetration had to be proven by a third party witness, or both homosexual partners were executed, making it unlikely for any man to tell on his bedfellow (Bullough, 1976). Inconsistent punishment for homosexual behavior continued through the seventeenth century. At the same time Sir Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England, was known to have discreet homosexual relations with his servants (Hyde, 1970), the British Articles of War specified hanging for buggery. The British military was more likely to hang a man for buggery than for mutiny or desertion, or at the least, sentence him to a thousand lashes (Weeks, 1977). French royalty enjoyed more tolerance. Louis XIV's brother, Philip, Duc d'Orleans (1640-1701), publicly displayed his homosexuality as a transvestite. He rode into battles wearing makeup, powder, ribbons, and jewelry, but no hat, for fear of messing up his hairdo. According to his wife, he surrounded himself with other homosexual men. These included Prince Eugene of Savoy; Louis, Prince of Conde; and the great Franco-Italian-Austrian general, Duc Claude de Villiars. They were members, along with other French nobility, of the Order of Sodomites known as the Sacred Fraternity of Glorious Pederasts, who swore to avoid women except for procreation and fellated distinguished guests at meetings (Bullough, 1976). America followed British lead in matters of sexual morality. Puritanical colonies stressed marriage and condemned all other sexual expressions even more strongly than in Europe. Homosexual behavior was furtive and secret. Bundling, the common practice of sleeping together fully dressed, was practiced by same sex friends and provided a clandestine sexual outlet. Anything overt, though, was punished with death. Virginian Richard Cornish was the first American executed for homosexuality, in 1624 (Bullough, 1976). In summary, the monarchies of the Judaeo-Christian culture spent the 15th to the 17th centuries fighting off the Ottoman Islamic homosexual threat, rebelling against Church authority, competing with each other in exploitive expansion, and warring with each other until mutually devastated and exhausted. Judaeo-Christian nations advanced technologically in their efforts to gain more status and control, and to decrease vulnerability to each other. Homosexual behavior became inconsistently punished by the state. Covert homosexual behavior was tolerated and even fostered by some customs, such as bundling. However, if it became overt, authorities were threatened and offenders were executed, especially in the military. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries' Political and Industrial Revolution: Eighteenth Century The 18th century appeared relatively peaceful in comparison with the previous two. The European population grew and recovered from the devastation of the Thirty Years' War. When strong enough, European people began revolting against the monarchs who had oppressed them, and established republics. Some colonies, including America, also revolted and gained independence. Church authority continued to diminish with the advance of rational and scientific thought (Garraty, 1972). As religious influence over sexual behavior declined through the 18th century, "scientific" medical reasons replaced religious prohibitions for sexual repression. Masturbation, for example, was thought to cause insanity. Homosexuality, too, came to be considered an illness. These medical notions were used by Victorian moralists to repress sexuality until well into the twentieth century (Bullough, 1976). Overt homosexuality was still feared, and offenders were executed. "According to an eighteenth century French legal encyclopedia, 'The Swiss exercise extraordinary rigors against men guilty of this crime. They cut off one limb after another in the course of several days - first an arm, then a thigh; when the body is a lifeless trunk, it is thrown on the fire.' Brillon, Pierre Jacques, Dictionnaire des arrets, ou jurisprudence universelle. (Paris, 1727), Tome 6, p. 216" (Crompton, 1978, p. 70). Other Western countries also continued executions. In Prussia, Frederick the Great (1712-1786), as a young man, had an intense homosexual friendship that so provoked his father that Frederick's lover was beheaded in front of him. The French continued burning people for homosexual behavior until after their Revolution in 1789 (Bullough, 1976). Spanish soldiers stationed at Ft. Augustine, Florida, greatly outnumbered the women. The men turned to drinking, carousing, and homosexual relations with each other. When they began to involve local boys, though, they were deported to Havana (Katz, 1976). English military officials thought that buggery evoked disaster. Numbers of executions for buggery were directly related to Britain's social stability. When at social unrest or war, executions increased (Weeks, 1977). In America, Thomas Jefferson reduced the death penalty for sodomy to castration in 1777. In 1778, George Washington ordered LT Frederick Enslin drummed out of camp for attempting to commit sodomy with another soldier Katz, 1976). Following the Revolution, all of the states reduced the death penalty for sodomy to imprisonment (Crompton, 1978). Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century saw continued political revolutions in Greece, Italy, Poland, Belgium, Central Europe, and Canada. Great Britain led the Industrial Revolution, followed by Germany, France, and the United States (Garraty, 1972). As Judaeo-Christian people gained control over their lives through politics and advancing technology, they began to relax their legal penalties for homosexual behavior. France France decriminalized homosexual behavior between consenting adults in its 1810 Napoleonic Code. Many countries under French dominance followed, including Belgium, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, some German states, and several Latin American countries. Scandinavian states were slow to change and continued to enforce the death penalty for sex offenses until 1866 (Bullough, 1976). Germanic States Prussia maintained legal sanctions against homosexuality, which were adopted by Germany in 1871 as Paragraph 175 of its penal code (Bullough, 1976). Hungarian physician, Karoly Benkert, protested the new German code, and coined the word, "homosexual," in a medical pamphlet to describe the condition: "'In addition to the normal sexual urge in men and women, Nature in her sovereign mood had endowed at birth certain male and female individuals with the homosexual urge, thus placing them in a sexual bondage...the victim of this passion finds it impossible to suppress the feeling which individuals of his own sex exercise upon him'" (Bullough, 1976, p. 637). Three thousand years of repeated military male rapes and subjugations of the Judaeo-Christian people by their enemies may lay behind this association of homosexuality with feelings of helpless victimization and bondage. England The 19th century British military continued to hang selected persons for homosexual behavior while ignoring others. In 1816, four sailors of the Royal Navy ship, the African, were hung and two others were punished for "uncleanliness". In 1829, the navy ordered the death penalty for buggery for the last time (Gilbert, 1974). The English reduced the penalty for homosexual behavior from death to life imprisonment in 1861; and then further, in 1885, to two years of imprisonment with hard labor (Hyde, 1970). The law became a blackmailer's charter. The English ignored homosexual behavior in people they liked while using it as a means to condemn those they disliked. Proper Victorian appearances covered for clandestine sexual feelings and practices (Tannahill, 1980). A covert blossoming of gay culture in London collapsed with the 1895 trial and imprisonment of Oscar Wilde (Deaderick, 1997). The English school system fostered covert homosexual behavior by taking young boys from their families into the segregated company of other boys, where peer group pressure forced them to conform to the norms set by the older boys. There was a lot of homoerotic play. The young men grew up largely isolated from women. At Oxford and Cambridge, the don, or tutor, was single, and married faculty members were not even allowed until 1882. Students were not permitted to marry, and often remained bachelors until late in life, when they would succumb to the social pressure to procreate. From the universities, men moved into all male clubs, where intense friendships sublimated homosexual feelings and often disguised covert homosexual practices. Reports of these homosexual relationships are only recently beginning to appear in private letters (Bullough, 1976). Russia Late nineteenth century Russia was less homophobic than England. Historical sources depict well-adjusted homosexual and bisexual people among the merchants and clergy. Homosexuality was widespread and accepted among the peasants who belonged to Old Believer splinter sects, such as the Khlysty and Skoptsy in the north of Russia (Karlinsky, 1982). Nikolai Przhevalsky exemplifies the great 19th century Russian adventurers. He became famous throughout the Western world for his explorations of previously unknown regions of Mongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet; his discovery of numerous new animal and plant species; and his books about all of the above, which were translated and widely read in England and America. This flinty conquistador and mighty hunter, the epitome of imperialistic Victorian manhood, also loved young men. Each expedition was planned to include a lover-companion between the ages of 16 and 22, who was educated at government expense and commissioned a lieutenant in the army. The young men chosen by Przhevalsky had to give him unquestioning obedience, share his tent, and submit to an occasional fatherly spanking. They were rewarded with expensive gifts, an army career, and fame (Karlinsky, 1982). United States Nineteenth century America expanded, exploited, enslaved, and battled with internal and external enemies. The United States fought Great Britain (1812), Mexico (1846-1848), itself (1861-1865), and Spain (1898) (Garraty, 1972). Sexuality was generally repressed and covert, especially homosexuality. The medical profession associated homosexual behavior closely with masturbation as causes of mental illness. Sodomy, though ill defined, remained illegal, with punishments of up to life imprisonments in some states (Bullough, 1976). Homosexuality was considered unspeakable, so written accounts of it are rare. The few existing records describe what occurred in overt cases. An 1826 prison investigation found homosexual practices rampant and cried out against the sexual abuse of juvenile prisoners by the older men (Katz, 1976). In 1886, Dr. Randolph was called to treat an outbreak of gonorrhea that had spread by anal intercourse at a Baltimore boy's corrective institute. He found the practice of anal intercourse common and was unable to get the boys to stop it (Bullough, 1976). The 1880 U.S. Census reported 63 prisoners jailed for "crimes against nature". By 1890, the number had risen to 224 (Katz, 1976). By the late 19th century, homosexual male bars, restaurants, and brothels could be found in most major U.S. cities, as well as adolescent male prostitutes on the streets. Beneath the veneer of Victorian respectability, a wide variety of sexual behavior occurred in 19th century America, but mostly there was a tendency to deny that it existed (Bullough, 1976). Arab World However, Western strangers might still be raped when traveling in Arab territory. For example, Sir Richard Burton wrote in The Arabian Knights, "A favourite Persian punishment for strangers caught in the Harem or Gynaeceum is to strip and through them and expose them to the embraces of the grooms and Negro slaves. I once asked a Shirazi how penetration was possible if the patient resisted with all the force of the sphincter muscle: he smiled and said, 'Ah, we Persians know a trick to get over that: we apply a sharpened tent peg to the crupper-bone and knock, till he opens'" (Vanggaard, 1969, p. 100). By the 18th and 19th centuries, advancing technology of defense made the people of the Judaeo-Christian culture invulnerable to further external threats. Internal competition, aggression, and defensiveness between Western nations replaced external threats in fueling the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions. As the people gained a greater sense of security, they threw off the absolute authorities of the Church and their monarchies, and relaxed their intolerance of homosexuality. By the end of the 19th century, most Judaeo-Christian countries felt secure enough to tolerate covert homosexuality and, if not abolish, at least reduce the penalty for overt expressions. Homophobia remained strongest, though, in the culture's conservative religious and military institutions. Twentieth Century: Torture and Tolerance Exponential technological advances in communication from radio, telephone, and television to the internet; in transportation from the car and train to the airplane and outer space travel; in international commerce; and in warfare enabled nations of the Judaeo-Christian culture to maintain global cultural dominance through the twentieth century. People worldwide adopted the cultural value of freedom, ousted colonial powers, and set up democratic governments. Communism arose only to fall to capitalism. Judaeo-Christian promotion of procreation contributed to population explosion and associated environmental problems. International competitiveness and aggression fueled two World Wars, as well as lesser regional conflicts (Garraty, 1972). Twentieth century warfare took three times more lives than all of the prior 19 centuries combined (Gergen, 2000). Early in the twentieth century, Western sexual attitudes remained as negative as they had been for 2000 years. Change occurred slowly until after World War II, when change accelerated more rapidly due to better scientific understanding, cures for venereal diseases, contraceptives, the emancipation of women, advances in the technology of communication, and effective political lobbying (Bullough, 1976). Advancing technology increased the value of brains compared to brawn, so women could compete more successfully with men for roles in work and in war. After demonstrating their worth in World War I, American women gained the right to vote. World War II was won as much by the effective work of women as by the men, which further enhanced female status in Western culture. Further success through education, business, and political endeavor improved female status throughout the century. As female status rose closer to that of males, cultural homophobia, males' fear of losing masculine status to be like females by being homosexual, subsided. As in previous centuries, tolerance for homosexuality increased during periods of economic and political security, and homophobia increased during times of cultural stress. Before World War II Though Western men could rely on superior technology to protect themselves from defeat and rape by nonwestern soldiers, wartime atrocities still occurred. For example, in 1917 during World War I, Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935), the British adventurer, was captured when he sneaked into Deraa as a spy. Lawrence was brought before the Turkish governor, Hajim Bey, who demanded that Lawrence present himself for anal sodomy. Lawrence refused, "but the guard threw him on a bench and lashed him until the pain 'which wrapped itself like a flaming wire about my body' made him surrender to Hajim Bey" (Vanggaard, 1969, p. 105). Though he later escaped, news of Lawrence's submission was spread abroad and caused irreparable damage to his reputation in the Arab world. The rape was a turning point in his life. Lawrence left behind his previous existence, renounced his position and titles, and hid in anonymity. A letter to a British friend expresses how he felt: "You instance my night in Deraa, well I'm always afraid of being hurt and to me, while I live, the force of that night will be in the agony that broke me, and made me surrender...About that night, I shouldn't tell you, because decent men don't talk about such things. I wanted to put it plain in the book, and wrestled for days with my self-respect...which wouldn't, hasn't let me. For fear of being hurt, or rather to earn five minutes' respite from a pain which drove me mad, I gave away the only possession which we are born into the world with--our bodily integrity. It's an unforgivable matter, an irrecoverable position: and it's that which has made me forswear decent living, and the exercise of my not contemptible wits and talents. You may call this morbid; but think of the offence, and the intensity of brooding over it for these years. It will hang about me whilst I live, and afterwards, if our personality survives. Consider wandering among the decent Ghosts hereafter, crying "unclean, unclean!"'" (Vanggaard, 1969, p. 106). Lawrence felt it would have been more honorable to die, as Notaras had done, than to submit (Vanggaard, 1969). Lawrence may well have spoken for the millions of men of the Judaeo-Christian culture who have been raped by their enemies. Germany In 1897, Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld founded the first homosexual rights organization in the world, the Scientific Humanitarian Committee, which worked for 35 years toward repealing the anti-homosexual German penal code, Paragraph 175 (Deaderick, 1997). At the turn of the century, Sigmund Freud commented, "homosexuals must not be treated as sick people, for a perverse orientation is far from being a sickness. Wouldn't that oblige us to characterize as sick many great thinkers and scholars of all time, whose perverse orientation we know for a fact and whom we admire precisely because of their mental health? Homosexual persons are not sick" (Freud, 1903, p. 5). However, homophobic voices still thrived and eventually prevailed. In 1906, when Count Schulenburg invited aristocratic homosexuals to join a social and defense league, Berlin publisher Maximilian Harden expressed alarm by stating that homosexuals have "a comradeship which is stronger than that of the monastic orders or of free masonry, which grips tighter and makes a link across all the walls of creed, state, and class, which unites the most remote, the most foreign, in a fraternal league of offense and defense. Men of this breed are to be found everywhere, at courts, in high positions in armies and navies, in the editorial offices of great newspapers, at tradesmen's and teachers' desks, even on the Bench. All rally together against the common enemy." Though often used against Jews, this old international conspiracy theory successfully crushed the Count's plan to include homosexuals (Tannahill, 1980, p. 377). Nonetheless, the homosexual emancipation movement worked 32 years for the passage of the Penal Code Reform Bill, which was almost approved until 1929, when the United States stock market crashed. During the ensuing crisis, the bill was tabled and the Nazis came to power. They stated, "Anyone who even thinks of homosexual love is our enemy. We reject anything which emasculates our people and makes it a plaything for our enemies, for we know that life is a fight and it's madness to think that men will ever embrace fraternally. Natural history teaches us the opposite. Might makes right. And the stronger will always win over the weak. Let's see to it that we once again become the strong! But this we can only do in one way: the German people must once again learn how to exercise discipline. We therefore reject any form of lewdness, especially homosexuality, because it robs us of our last chance to free our people from the bondage which now enslaves it" (Steakly, 1975, p. 84). Nazis proceeded to implement their version of sexual reform, eugenics, including the extermination of homosexuals, Jews, and others thought to weaken the Aryan race. Gay rights organizations were quickly outlawed. In 1933, the SS began raiding gay bars. Hitler's SS commander, Ernst Roehm, was executed for homosexuality in 1934. German gays were arrested in increasing numbers and sent to camps where they died of hard labor, torture, and experimentation (Miller, 1995). Britain By 1914, Britain had recovered enough from the public hysteria over Oscar Wilde's 1895 imprisonment to allow the formation of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology by Havelock Ellis and Edward Carpenter. The Society supported progress in gaining gay rights through education and propaganda (Deaderick, 1997). In the early 1900's British and French navies, male homosexual relations were reported as common. A letter from a British naval officer reads, "Homosexuality was rife, and one could see with his own eyes how it was going on between officers. I have been told that in some services (the Austrian and French, for instance) nobody ever remarks about it, taking such a thing as natural proceeding. To my knowledge, sodomy is a regular thing on ships that go on long cruises" (Hyde, 1970, p. 159). France By the beginning of the twentieth century, France had thrown off the authority of the church and the monarchy, and boasted the most fragmented, modern, and liberal European society. Paris became a cultural haven for artistic people from other more intolerant places. The need to cope with heterosexist society encouraged homosexual artistic association and creativity. In 1924, the first gay French journal, Inversions, proclaimed the normalcy of homosexuality and the right to live fully. The government became anxious about the potential popularity of the magazine, shut it down after several issues, and imprisoned its publishers. Whereas the authoritarian German regime stimulated an open political gay rights movement, the more liberal French government allowed covert gay artistic society to thrive, as long as it did not become open and visible. No open gay movement organized in France before World War II (Adam, 1995). Russia When the Russian Bolshevik government came to power in 1917, laws against consensual sex, including homosexuality, were ended. Pro-gay reforms were part of a larger effort to improve women's status. For several years, Soviet delegates led progress in the World Congress of Sexual Reform. However, World War I and the following civil war devastated agriculture, industry, and transportation. The ensuing social and economic crisis brought Stalin to power. His conservative government rescinded sexual reforms and promoted heterosexual procreation as the only morally pure option (Deaderick, 1997). During the early 1930's, homosexuality was equated with bourgeois decadence. In 1934, Stalin's Soviet government made a mass arrest of gay men in major cities and imprisoned them or exiled them to Siberia. The mass arrest was followed by numerous suicides in the Red Army, as well. Stalin enacted a federal statute punishing consensual male homosexual acts with up to 5 years imprisonment (Lauritsen, 1974). The Russians used homosexuality to blackmail officials from other countries to spy for them. In 1913, Colonel Alfred Redl, a senior Austro-Hungarian army intelligence officer who had been blackmailed for years committed suicide when a chance incident led to his discovery. This incident validated Western concerns that homosexuality posed a security risk (Hyde, 1970). United States In the early 1900's, big business dominated American politics, economy, and sexual morality. Industrial labor emphasized the value of aggressive masculine competitiveness and monogamous heterosexuality to enhance productivity. Medicine defined homosexuality as a miserable disorder to be treated by castration, hypnosis, electroshock, surgery, drugs, and hormones. In this context, Edward Stevenson published the first American book of its kind in 1908, The Intersexes, in which he described homosexual clubs, cafes, baths, bars, and music halls in major American cities. Homosexual men were generally considered effeminate (Adam, 1995). Following World War I, American authorities tried to eliminate effeminacy from its male ranks. The 1916 Articles of War specified, "assault with the intent to commit sodomy" as a punishable offense. In 1919, the Newport Naval Training Station used a 41-man "pervert squad" to entrap and imprison 16 sailors. Members of the squad engaged in sexual acts repeatedly with the sailors prior to arresting them. Several of the squad were honored for their zealous work (Adam, 1995). The 1920 revision of the Articles of War first named consensual sodomy as a criminal offense. The "roaring 20's" brought economic prosperity and the first American gay rights organization. The Society for Human Rights was born in December of 1924 and survived briefly into 1925, when the wife of a director informed police. The directors were arrested and the organization was exposed as a strange sex cult. Homosexual themes were removed from movies, and in 1927 New York banned any reference to "sexual perversion" (Adam, 1995). The stock market crash and the Great Depression of the 1930's fueled widespread panic about homosexuals, who were defined as sexual criminals. Legislatures enacted "criminal sexual psychopath" laws that allowed courts to imprison men for homosexuality. Gay Americans were effectively silenced until the 1950's (Adam, 1995). World War II: The German Holocaust As previously mentioned, the post-nineteenth century liberal wave came crashing down with the U.S. stock market in 1929. The German movement to reform antihomosexual Paragraph 175 ended and conservative Nazis ascended to power. By 1937, the SS newspaper, Das Schwrze Korps, called for the extermination of the estimated 2 million German homosexuals, and Heinrich Himmler ordered that they be sent to Level 3 death camps. In 1939, Germany started World War II by invading Poland. By the end of the war in 1945, more than 200,000 gay men perished in the German camps and prisons (McNeil, 1976). In his recent book, The Hidden Hitler, German historian Lothar Machtan theorizes that Hitler was a closeted homosexual, who was passed over for promotion in World War I due to his relationship with a soldier described by others as "Hitler's whore." In order to distance himself from his homosexual past, avoid blackmail, and gain conservative political power, Hitler murdered his homosexual lieutenant, Ernst Rohm, and sent Germany's gay men to death camps (Curry, 2001). The Nazis deprived conquered men of heterosexual relations to encourage them to engage in masturbation and homosexual practices. "Nazis, being notoriously homosexual, were past masters in introducing and fostering homosexual practices among male captives" (Hirschfield, 1946, p. 286). After the war, gay survivors remained incarcerated as criminal violators of Paragraph 175, which remained in force until 1968 to please United States occupational forces (Crompton, 1978). "The pink triangle that gay victims of German fascism were forced to wear in the death mills, has since become an international symbol of defiance to gay oppression" (Deaderick, 1997, p. 20). Nazis expressed the most conservative fears and values of Judeo-Christian culture by equating male homosexuality with feminine weakness and vulnerability, and therefore intolerable for German men. The Allies shared similar cultural fears and values. However, as victors of World War I, the Allies were more secure and liberal. They showed more tolerance, but stigmatized homosexual men nonetheless, by excluding them from military service. World War II: Allied Stigmatization Outs Gays Allied soldiers and sailors, who fought side by side, formed close bonds, sometimes as lovers. However, unlike the ancients who boasted of their special friendships, World War II men kept quiet about their secret relationships for fear of malicious gossip or worse. Warriors slurred their opponents with names of homosexual opprobrium (Hirschfield, 1946). "Easily, the most frequent precipitating cause of 'shell shock,' of 'battle fatigue,' was melancholia following the death of one's buddy" (Gorer, 1948, p. 128). British officers were indited for homosexuality at a five-fold increase during the War. For example, Sir Paul Latham, Conservative M.P., was court-martialed in 1941 for homosexual conduct while serving as an officer, and for his attempted suicide when he learned of the charges. He lost his seat in the House of Commons, was cashiered, imprisoned for 2 years, divorced by his wife, and then died a broken man a few years after his release (Hyde, 1970). Allied military men often attempted suicide in response to serious charges of homosexuality. The United States began peacetime conscription in 1940. Before this, the U.S. military only concerned itself with prosecuting acts of sodomy as crimes. However, when 16 million men registered for the draft in October 1940, the military decided to follow psychiatrists' recommendations for excluding homosexuals as an unfit personality type, in addition to prosecuting men for sodomy. The military then developed policies and procedures for discovering, diagnosing, and discharging homosexuals in order to maintain a strong fighting force (Berube, 1990). "Alone among the warring nations, America automatically rejected from the armed services all recognizable overt homosexuals. This selection was not made through any belief that the homosexuals would be less efficient soldiers; it was a necessary protection for the rest--Because of the belief that everybody is vulnerable in this regard, because nobody is sure he is not a sissy, all possible precautions were taken to protect the conscripted soldier. The weeding out of open focuses of infection was the first phase, but this was not considered sufficient; for after all, the inhabitants of the barracks were all male. To maintain their heterosexual interests, the soldiers were encouraged to cover the walls with pictures of scantily dressed girls on which their eyes could rest last thing at night and first thing in the morning" (Gorer, 1948, p.127). "The lives of most American men are bounded, and their interests drastically curtailed, by this constant necessity to prove to themselves, and to their fellows, that they are not sissies, not homosexuals. It is difficult to exaggerate the prevalence and urgency of this unconscious fear...I think a connection can be traced between the prevalence and urgency of such fears and tendencies, and the drinking to become intoxicated which is typical of many Americans" (Gorer, 1948, p.129). Traditionally, the military has excused men for sodomy if they were intoxicated when it occurred, because obviously they were not themselves, or really homosexuals. Selective Service Boards were able to officially identify nearly 1% of men as homosexuals, but most men were able to hide. "Discharges from the Army and Navy similarly have not provided any adequate source of information on the actual incidence of homosexual activity. Many psychiatrists in the armed forces were aware of the great social damage done to an individual who was discharged for such reasons, and they considered it desirable to help him by showing flat feet, stomach ulcers, shock, or some other non-sexual item as the immediate cause of the discharge. Consequently, no one anywhere in official circles in the Army and Navy will ever be able to obtain any adequate estimate of the number of men with homosexual activity who were identified and discharged from the services during the war" (Kinsey, 1948, p. 621). During the 1930's and 40's before going to war, most young men socialized with local family and friends, and considered homosexual attraction as temptation, and behavior as sin. However, the mass mobilization for World War II transported young men from the constraints of family and community, to large cities and ports where they encountered other gay men and culture for the first time. Relationships for sex, love, and friendship formed in the military and in the large war-boom cities where gay nightlife, including parties, bars, and clubs flourished. "Coming out" came to mean finding gay friends and a gay life. The military "outed" many men against their will, when rejected at induction or undesirably discharged later, when discovered. Many of these stigmatized men could not return to life at home due to rejection by family, friends, churches, and employers. To find work and social support, homosexually stigmatized men migrated to large cities and joined burgeoning gay communities. As many veterans tried to upgrade their military discharges, the gay political struggle for justice and equal rights was born (Berube, 1990). In summary, Judeo-Christian homophobia was so severe in conservative Nazi Germany that homosexual men were exterminated. In the more liberal Allied countries, though, cultural homophobia remained bad enough to stigmatize homosexual men and to separate them from mainstream society into urban gay ghettos, where they were tolerated enough to allow for the development of a new social minority, the gay community. The Cold War: Homophobes and Homophiles As World War II ended, the Big Three Alliance (USA, Great Britain, and USSR) deteriorated. The USA frightened the USSR with development and deployment of nuclear weapons. Both nations embarked on an arms race to deter each other from achieving world dominance. The rest of Europe struggled to align with the new superpowers and to recover from World War II. European nations gradually relinquished control of their rebellious colonies around the world, which also became aligned with the superpowers in the Cold War. By 1950, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was allied with USA against the Communists: USSR and China (Garraty, 1972). The conservative Communist Block dictatorships took over where Hitler left off in hospitalizing, imprisoning, and exiling gay men. The more secure and liberal NATO countries remained homophobic, but more tolerant. Developing countries, including Islamic states, emulated the most conservative and homophobic Judeo-Christian values in their laws and military practices. Great Britain's National Health Service tortured gays with aversion therapy through the 1950's and 1960's. Once identified, gay men were forced to choose treatment or prison. Electric shock and nauseating drugs failed to cure the patients. After World War II, mathematician and code-buster Alan Turing killed himself after coerced estrogen treatment. British security imposed the treatment to reduce Turing's vulnerability to blackmail (Asher, 2001). In postwar America, a massive barrage of propaganda helped in transferring women's wartime jobs to returning men. Women were pushed back into housekeeping (Deaderick, 1997). Women lost status and male homophobia increased. As the Cold War escalated, USA and USSR competed in building the largest missiles with the most explosive warheads to penetrate and harm the enemy. Americans defended themselves by building impenetrable public and private bomb shelters, and by frequently sounding loud sirens to practice taking cover. Dr. Kinsey's 1948 study of 5300 males was an unwelcome exposure of American homosexuality. He reported that "...perhaps the major portion of the male population has at least some homosexual experience between adolescence and old age. In addition, about 60% of the pre-adolescent boys engage in homosexual activities, and there is an additional group of adult males who avoid overt contacts but are quite aware of their potentialities for reacting to other males" (Kinsey, 1948, p. 610). Dr. Kinsey's report was not good news to conservative Americans, who believed homosexuality was a sign of weakened masculine status and strength. Senator McCarthy began the most vicious anti-homosexual campaign in US history. The federal government moved to eliminate all signs of homosexuality from its ranks. In 1950, a special Senate subcommittee reported that in the two prior years, 4,954 "sexual perverts" had been identified in 36 out of 53 areas of government and the military, and had been separated (Deaderick, 1997). In 1951, Congress formalized earlier military policies against homosexuals in the Uniform Code of Military Justice, which remains in force to this day, despite a 1957 Crittenden Report, suppressed for 20 years, that found no reason for considering gay men as security risks. Blackmailing homosexual spies to betray the West reinforced the fear that homosexuals were traitors. In 1951, Donald MacClean and Guy Burgess, homosexual British diplomats serving in Washington, D.C., were blackmailed by the USSR, and provided top secret USA information to the Russians (Hyde, 1970). In 1955, the Russians entrapped William John Christopher Vassall having sex with a handsome Russian military officer at the Moscow British Embassy, and blackmailed him into leaking information to the Soviets for 7 years (Hyde, 1970). Senator McCarthy and his counterparts in the House Un-American Activities Committee placed homosexuality, subversion and Communism into the same category. The Chairman of the National Republican Party claimed that sexual perverts had infiltrated the government and were just as dangerous as Communists (Bullough, 1976). During the 1950's, the Cold War between the Soviet-dominated east and capitalist-led west threatened nuclear holocaust. The formation of the European Economic Union in 1957 strengthened economic and social recovery from World War II in Western Europe. As European nations granted political independence to their colonies, the USA and USSR competed globally for the political and economic allegiance of the newly independent countries, which often fought each other bitterly over tribal rivalries and cultural boundaries. Large areas of the world declined into poverty, corruption, and instability; and became known as the Third World (Teeple, 2002). These newly independent and often desperate nations sought to gain favor with the superpowers by emulating conservative Judaeo-Christian sexual values and practices, and suppressing homosexuality. 1950's: America Gives Birth to the Modern Gay Rights Movement In response to homophobic discrimination, homosexual Americans and their liberal supporters organized the "homophile," or gay rights movement. Much has been published about the modern gay rights movement. A brief summary of relevant highlights may show how increasing Western political and economic security during the last half of the twentieth century, associated with increasing tolerance for homosexuality, has allowed development of a gay identity and community that in turn, has facilitated healing from homophobia in the larger culture. In 1950, Harry Hay founded "Bachelor's Anonymous" in Los Angeles. Out of that group, the Mattachine Society formed in 1951 to work for homosexual rights. Dor Legg and some Mattachine members organized One, Inc. in 1952 to publish a newsletter, which was seized as obscene in 1954 by the Los Angeles Postmaster. One, Inc. fought the Postmaster in court battles that progressed until 1958, when the US Supreme Court ruled that homosexual themes were no longer considered obscene and could be sent through the mail (Katz, 1976). In the 1950's, United States mental health professionals continued to believe that homosexuality was a mental illness until challenged by psychologist Evelyn Hooker. She met some of her students' homosexual friends and was surprised that they seemed normal. In 1954, she administered projective psychological tests to matched groups of 30 homosexual and 30 heterosexual persons. Results showed no significant difference in levels or types of psychopathology between the two groups. She found that psychopathology in both groups was related to disturbed family background, not to sexual orientation. Healthy members of both groups came from healthy families. In her "Final Report of the NIMH Task Force on Homosexuality," Dr. Hooker related homosexuals' misery to social oppression, and called for ending the discriminatory practices of the heterosexual world (Bayor, 1981). 1960's: Civil Rights and Women's Rights Spawn Gay Rights By the 1960's, Southern European Mediterranean adolescent and young adult males generally experienced homosexual relations as a normal part of bisexual development. Homophobia increased going north over the Alps. Northern Europeans accommodated this by becoming more exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. The nonwestern developing world continued to emulate the most conservative Judaeo-Christian homophobic values and practices (Churchill, 1967). In 1967, the British Parliament decriminalized consensual adult homosexual relations in civilian life, as recommended by the Wolfendon Committee, but not in the armed forces or merchant ships (Hyde, 1970). Germany then remained the only Western European nation with laws punishing consensual homosexuality. German homophobia was exceeded only by American homophobia. Germany kept its sodomy laws to appease the American military occupation (Churchill, 1967). America remained homophobic in the 1960's. "While science experimented on homosexuals, often against their will--with shock treatment, aversion therapy, hormone injections, castration, drug therapy, lobotomy--society, too, did its part to eliminate them. Violence, blackmail, social ostracism, imprisonment, and public humiliation were employed against them, especially if they refused to abandon their degenerate ways or refused to remain hidden in what, by the sixties, they had come to call the closet. Indeed, it was in the early sixties--one of the most homophobic periods in American history--that the metaphor of the closet first emerged in gay argot" (Fone, 2000, p.406). In the early 1960's, many American gay activists minimized differences to enhance assimilation as a way of reducing persecution and gaining some acceptance into the larger society. However, several oppressed minority groups, such as blacks and women, organized as the New Left to challenge the privileged classes. "...the homophile movement of the 1960's expanded and reorganized as a part of a larger social upheaval and soon began to question the premises of the assimilationist approach" (Adam, 1995, p. 74). Recovery from the McCarthy era of terror proceeded. In 1961, Illinois adopted the Model Legal Code of the American Law Institute to become the first state to decriminalize homosexuality between private consenting adult males. The Motion Picture Association of America lifted its ban on gay themes in the movies. In Washington DC, Frank Kameny responded to his dismissal from the Civil Service by forming an activist chapter of the Mattachine Society. He pronounced that "Gay is good" and called for equal rights. By the middle 1960's, he was leading public demonstrations that attracted national news media. In 1964, New York League for Sexual Freedom staged the first American public gay rights demonstration by protesting antigay military policy. Blacks, feminists, and now, gays were refusing to accept their oppressed places in society. In 1966, Los Angeles militants founded "P.R.I.D.E.," Personal Rights in Defense and Education, to fight police harassment. In 1967, they began publishing Los Angeles Advocate, which evolved into the continuing national gay newsmagazine, Advocate. Hence, "Gay Pride" was born (King, 2001). The number of gay organizations increased from 15 in 1966 to 50 in 1969. "The 1968 North American Conference of Homophile Organizations resolved that 'homosexuality is in no way inferior to heterosexuality as a valid way of life' and accepted the 'gay is good' credo" (Adam, 1995, p. 79). In the late 1960's student and antiwar movements swept across America and Western Europe, along with gay liberation. "Gay liberation never thought of itself as a civil rights movement for a particular minority but as a revolutionary struggle to free the homosexuality in everyone, challenging the conventional arrangements that confined sexuality to heterosexual, monogamous families" (Adam, 1995, p. 84). In 1968, Columbia University and Sorbonne began what in a few years became gay liberation front groups on large campuses throughout the Western world. In 1969, the Gay Activists Alliance broke away from the Gay Liberation Front to interact with politicians and the media to bring gay civil rights issues to public attention. Gay militants participated in and came out of the New Left movements freeing other oppressed groups, and applied New Left ideas and methods to liberate gays (Adam, 1995). In 1967, police raids on Los Angeles gay bars provoked hundreds to protest on Sunset Blvd. The 1969 New York City Stonewall Rebellion, where bar patrons revolted against police harassment, galvanized the spirit of liberation that had developed through the late 60's (Adam, 1995). In 1969, the Eastern Regional Conference of Homophile Organizations proposed that gay communities across the nation celebrate the Stonewall liberation every summer, and the gay pride parade and festival tradition was born. Throughout the 1960's, mainstream USA religious groups condemned homosexuality as sinful. The Pentecostal Church defrocked Troy Perry for homosexuality, so in 1968, he founded the Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches in Los Angeles. His church has spread worldwide to become the largest gay Christian church. In 1970, the first of many gay synagogues, Beth Chayim Chadashim, was founded in Los Angeles. The same year, the Unitarian Universalist Association and the Lutheran Church of American opposed discrimination against gay people. In 1972, the United Church of Christ ordained openly gay ministers. Discussion and writing about homosexuality and religion proliferated exponentially from then until the present. 1970's: Liberation and Backlash: Homosexual Orientation Becomes Gay Identity During the early to mid 1970's in the Western world, gay liberation groups formed in major cities alongside more liberal civil rights organizations. The United States led English-speaking countries, which progressed in similar ways. Other Western countries varied with their subculture. Germans decriminalized homosexuality in 1969 and lowered the age of consent from 21 to 18 in 1973. Scandinavian countries proceeded methodically to provide more social and legal accommodations. In France, the Front Homosexual Action Revolutionnaire exclaimed, "we get fucked by Arabs. We're proud of it and will do it again! Our asshole is revolutionary" (Girard, 1981, pp. 89-90). Other organizations followed this flamboyant, short-lived group, and fought antigay discrimination in France and Italy (Adam, 1995). Southern European and Latin American rigid gender roles and conservative political regimes stifled gay identity development and community organization. Latin machismo still created two classes of men, the machos who took the active role with females and males, and the effeminates who degraded themselves by taking the passive role of women. At the end of an Argentina dictatorship in 1973, a new Frente de Liberacion Homosexual reported that Chilean dictator, Augusto Pinochet, was massacring Chilean gays. The Argentina group disbanded in 1976 when right-wing death squads killed tens of thousands of progressive Argentines (Adam, 1995). One of the most contentious issues was the age of consent. Since the 1970's, anti-pedophile hysteria has swept through the Western world. The religious right portrayed gay men as child molesters, the police and press discovered "sex rings," and new legislation specified harsher punishment than for murder. More liberal countries, such as Canada, Switzerland, and many European Union nations solved the problem by lowering the age of consent to 14, 15, or 16. The United Kingdom created more criminals by keeping the age at 21 until 1994, when it was lowered to 18, as in the United States. Widespread prosecution led to the dissolution or impotence of most supportive organizations, such as the North American Man-Boy Love Association, by the 1980's (Adam, 1995). Unique Western cultural assumptions about children, gender, and sexuality have been based on fear that adult males will use their power to abuse and exploit the vulnerabilities of youth, who must be protected until they are old enough to be economically independent. "For the Melanesian peoples, who hold that the insemination of boys is necessary for them to attain sexual maturity, the antipedophile complex is inconceivable, and for many societies where sexuality is the integral component of the pedagogical relationships of older and younger men, current Western attitudes would be thought puzzling or reprehensible" (Adam, 1995, p.152). Judaeo-Christian culture's historic traumatic experience of pederastic Greeks corrupting Hebrew youth and Ottoman soldiers capturing Christian boys to be their sex partners still appeared to underlie Western laws protecting youth from adult males. In the 1970's, American and other English speaking Caucasian gay men gained a new sense of pride. They adopted a more masculine style of dress and behavior, and pursued more egalitarian relationships with less polarized gender and sexual role playing, and more versatility. Gay men, who had previously been attracted to the masculinity of straight men, became attracted to the masculinity in each other. Drag, transvestites, and effeminacy were sidelined (Adam, 1995). Gay ghettos expanded through the 1970's, so that by 1980, every major city in American and Western Europe had a gay neighborhood with every amenity and service catering to their needs. Capitalization of homosexuality marketed sexual freedom and pleasure, but did little to encourage enduring male relationships (Adam, 1995). American gay activists organized and pushed for social acceptance and civil rights. In 1970, gay pride parades in New York City, Los Angeles, and San Francisco began annual celebrations of the Stonewall Inn uprising of 1969 (King, 2001). In 1972, East Lansing and Ann Arbor, Michigan became the first American cities to pass nondiscrimination ordinances. Most large cities passed similar ordinances over the next few years. In 1973, Lambda Legal Defense Fund was founded. The Gay Activist Alliance headquarters was firebombed, which brought that organization to its close; its activists reorganized as the National Gay Task Force (Adam, 1995). The National Gay Task Force successfully urged the American Psychiatric Association to delete homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. Speaking for the American Psychiatric Association, President Judd Marmor, M.D. extended the new general policy to the military as well by recommending that the military treat gays the same as heterosexuals. "If individual homosexual women or men prove to be unsuited to military life by virtue of specific actions that would apply equally to heterosexuals, those individuals should be separated from the service. As a class, however, there is no sound psychiatric basis for treating homosexual men and women any differently from other people in the armed services. In actuality, innumerable gay men and women have served in the armed forces with distinction and have received honorable discharges. The fact that they were undetected as homosexuals merely indicates that their sex life, no less than that of heterosexuals, was a private matter, as indeed it should be" (Bayor, 1981). American gay identity changed from an illness to an oppressed minority fighting for equal rights. Signs of cultural progress continued. In 1974, the first openly gay person was elected to public office, the Ann Arbor, Michigan city council. In 1975, gay men gained masculine status when David Kopay, a former NFL running back, became the first pro team sports athlete to come out. The US Civil Service Commission dropped its ban on gay people serving in federal government. The first gay rights bill was introduced into the US Congress. In 1977, the world's first gay film festival attracted 300 viewers in San Francisco. By the mid to late 1970's, New Left movements had declined and gay activists had spawned interest groups in institutions such as the church, the workplace, social services, business, and sport. Lesbians separated to form their own groups, and to invest their energy in the feminist movement. Some effeminate gay males, led by Harry Hay, responded to lesbian criticism by renouncing masculinity and celebrating their gay spirituality as Radical Faeries (Adam, 1995). Economic recession in the late 1970's brought industrial retrenchment, higher unemployment, and the rise of the New Right. The New Right undid much of the social and civil rights progress achieved earlier by the New Left. The Equal Rights Amendment, designed to protect women from discrimination, was defeated. Encouraged by overturning the new 1977 gay civil rights ordinance in Florida's Dade County, evangelical singer, Anita Bryant led a backlash that struck down many gay equal rights laws across the country. "Emboldened by an increasingly reactionary climate, police and street violence against gay people escalated, television programs resurrected old stereotypes, and many public leaders shed their veneer of liberalism to attack gay people as immoral sexual predators and threats to the family. After a tumultuous year and a half, Harvey Milk, the best-known openly gay public official in the United States, was assassinated" (Adam, 1995, p. 109). Instead of running for cover as gay people had done during the Nazi and McCarthy eras, gay communities of the late 1970's were strong enough to organize, protest, and fight back. In 1978, Anita Bryant's antigay Briggs Initiative was defeated in Florida. In San Francisco, Gilbert Baker raised the first Rainbow Flag, which the worldwide gay community quickly adopted. In 1979, activists staged the first March on Washington for equal rights. By the end of the 1970's, twenty-five states had dropped their sodomy laws. The 1970's finished with the founding of the International Lesbian and Gay Association, which held its first annual conference in Coventry, England. Representatives from modern liberal democracies in Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand met to share experiences and plan for social progress (Adam, 1995). A Global Perspective on the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century During the final quarter of the Twentieth Century, the West progressed with technological advances and economic prosperity while much of the rest of the world, especially Africa and Asia, descended into poverty, turmoil, and even anarchy. AIDS spread rampantly through these regions. Even though the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and ended the Cold War, illicit nuclear technology spread to rogue states and the world became more dangerous. Afghanistan, Cambodia, East Timor, Libya, Iran, Iraq, North Korea, Serbia, Sri Lanka, and sub-Saharan Africa spawned intense conflict with much destruction and loss of life. The Arab-Israeli conflict persisted. After the Soviet Empire dissolved, most of its former member Eastern European countries were welcomed back into the West. However, ethnic rivalries and corruption between the Serbs and other Yugoslavians eventually necessitated a 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo to protect the Albanians and overthrow the Serb regime. Pakistan and India tested nuclear weapons in 1999 as a threat to use them against each other. China continued as a totalitarian Communist state. On September 11, 2001, fundamentalist terrorists of the Al-Qaeda network attacked America. United States President Bush declared war on terrorism and toppled the Taliban in Afghanistan. He called North Korea, Iraq, and Iran an "axis of evil", and proceeded, against world protest, to declare war on Iraq, which fell to US and British forces in 2003. North Korea resumed its banned nuclear weapons program anyway (Teeple, 2002). 1980's: Fight for Civil Rights: AIDS Resurrects Fears Throughout the 1980's, Western progress and prosperity enabled the gay community to organize and to fight discrimination and gain civil rights protections by adding sexual orientation to human rights codes for housing, employment, and state services; and to counter hysterical fears about the new "gay plague" which became known as AIDS. Military and police organizations generally remained more homophobic than the states that employed them. Dramatic police raids often followed passage of more liberal laws (Adam, 1995). Progressive 1980's Developments Outside of the United States Decriminalizing sexual contact between males progressed faster in Europe than in America. The reunified Germany kept the 1988 West German policy that had abolished Paragraph 175. The European Court of Human Rights ordered decriminalization throughout Great Britain, which occurred by 1993. By 1990, all Australian states except Tasmania had decriminalized. However, in the United States, nearly half of the states still retained their sodomy laws (Adam, 1995). Europeans progressed toward gaining equal rights. In 1981, Norway pioneered the first national protection against discrimination, including a provision against hate propaganda. The Council of Europe passed an equal rights resolution. In 1984, the European Parliament adopted a comprehensive gay civil rights statement. The French National Assembly added sexual orientation to its antiracism law in 1985, as did Denmark and Sweden in 1987, the Netherlands in 1992, and New Zealand in 1993. For every step forward, there were many legislative bills and referenda to deny gay rights or even repeal existing ones, but the overall direction was forward (Adams, 1995). Some Western militaries began to tolerate gay men enough to allow them to serve openly, though most still did not. A 1981-1982 international survey of 110 noncommunist nations' military attaches inquired about their countries' military policies regarding homosexuality. The survey received 57 responses. Of those, 37% excluded gay men, 14% included them, and 49% reported not having any policy. Most of the exclusive countries had been historically governed by Great Britain and Spain, and most of the inclusive countries had been under French influence. All Communist countries excluded gay men (Harris, 1991). By the late 1980's and early 1990's, European Union nations, Canada, and Australia had dropped discriminatory antigay military policies. The United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States continued to discriminate (Adam, 1995). Dealing with HIV Gay-Related Immunodeficiency Disease was first identified in 1981 in United States gay men, even though it apparently originated in Africa. "Appearing as an unknown and unanticipated phenomenon at the site of some of the deepest anxieties of Western civilization--namely, sex and death--it was not long before AIDS was being encoded by highly charged rhetoric generated by the New Right" (Adam, 1995, p.155). From 1981-1983, the government remained quiet about the "gay cancer". Only when AIDS began affecting "innocent" victims, such as nongay women, children, and blood transfusion recipients, did the government become more interested and open about it. By the time actor, Rock Hudson, died of AIDS in 1985, mass media was promoting widespread panic by showing right-wing demagogues accusing gay men of being a threat to public health. The United States banned entry of HIV-positive people from other countries; and conservatives pushed, sometimes successfully, for repeal of gay civil rights protections (Adam, 1995). Gay and lesbian communities rallied to provide care and social services for ailing and dying men. They lobbied, organized, and protested. In 1981, New York City gay men gathered in Larry Kramer's apartment to discuss the new "gay cancer," and the Gay Men's Health Crisis organization was born. Many new organizations formed connections to government social welfare and health providers. Lesbian women replaced sick and dying gay male leaders in gay organizations. Conservatives preached abstinence until heterosexual marriage, whereas the gay community introduced the practice of "safer sex" with condom use. AIDS outed men who would have otherwise lived their lives in secret. Families and friends either abandoned their gay loved ones, or rallied to help them. In 1985, the first International Conference on AIDS convened in Atlanta, Georgia. Several gay authors and journalists responded the sensationalized media coverage about gay men and AIDS by forming Gay and Lesbian Alliance against Defamation. Members monitored media coverage and organized mass response to derogatory media portrayals of gay men. In 1987, Larry Kramer led activists in forming AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP). Radical protests attracted public attention to the HIV epidemic in new and dramatic ways. Randy Shilts published, And the Band Played On, which portrayed government's apathetic response to AIDS. AIDS eventually led to the development of many more gay-friendly organizations, increased awareness and discussion of gay male sexuality, and showed the public positive images of gay men as caregivers, educators, and volunteers (Adam, 1995). Military Response In 1981, the Reagan administration tightened US military policy so that commanders could no longer retain valued gay service members. Instead, the new policy required elimination with an honorable discharge for homosexual orientation. If there was evidence of sodomy, then the service member was court-martialed and either discharged at a lower grade or imprisoned. The reason for separation listed on the Honorable Discharge for Good and Faithful Service was for misconduct, moral or professional dereliction, or in the interest of national security, as evidenced by homosexuality (Shilts, 1993). The old cultural belief Ottoman times that associated homosexuality with heresy and treason still persisted. Numerous studies began challenging the belief that gay men were unfit to serve in the military. In 1982, the first study to bring gay military physicians out of the closet surveyed 36 gay San Francisco area physicians who were US military veterans. The physicians estimated that while they were in the military, only 8% of fellow service members had known that they were gay, and that overall, about 11% of officers and 15% of enlisted men were also gay, but closeted. The physicians had served in all military branches in various locations around the world from 1942 to 1982 with ranks up to O-6. They had been decorated with many honors and awards. All but the 5 still on active duty had received honorable discharges, because their homosexuality had not been a problem in their military service (Harris, 1984). 1980's Developments in the United States Numerous developments marked American cultural progress and setbacks through the 1980's. An American cultural swing to the right swept Ronald Reagan into the Presidency in 1980. Conservative political gay men launched the Human Rights Campaign to raise money to fund political candidates favoring gay rights. By contrast, the far left spawned San Francisco Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence, who took their message of sexual liberation to street theatre. In 1981, Adele Starr founded Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays in Los Angeles to support healthy integration of gay people in family life. Vito Russo published The Celluloid Closet, which documented gay themes in the movies and influenced future portrayals of gays in cinema and television. Harvey Fierstein's hit Broadway play, "Torch Song Trilogy," raised American consciousness about the emotional and physical violence inflicted on gay men. Wisconsin became the first US state to enact a gay rights bill. In 1982, former Olympic athlete, Tom Waddell, M.D., launched the first Gay Olympics in San Francisco. The U.S. Olympic Committee sued to force a change in name to "Gay Games." Gay men sported their newly found masculinity in the open for all to applaud. In 1984, Virginia Uribe started Project 10 to support gay students in Los Angeles high schools. The program became a model for helping high school students across the country. However, in 1986, the US Supreme Court, in Bowers vs. Hardwick, upheld the Georgia sodomy law against private consensual gay sex. This major setback restrained progress in gaining equal rights for 17 years. In 1987, activists led the Second March on Washington, and joined the broader liberal Rainbow Coalition for minority rights. In 1988, the National Gay Rights Advocates and Robert Eichberg launched the first annual National Coming Out Day on October 11. The event spread across college campuses and spurred educational programming nationwide. In 1989, Columnist Michelangelo Signorile introduced the debatable virtue of "outing" closeted gay public officials who vote and act against the welfare of the gay community. Throughout the 1980's antigay assaults and violence increased. Perpetrators were usually 15-25 years of age, and often acted with at least tacit approved of their communities as they defended conservative patriarchal values. Gay book stores and churches were fire-bombed, and men perceived to be gay were attacked and sometimes killed. The National Gay and Lesbian Task Force responded by organizing for the inclusion of sexual orientation in Hate Crimes laws that require worse punishment for crimes motivated by bigotry (Adam, 1995). 1990's: GLBTQI Communities Gains Visibility and Acceptance In the 1990's, increasing diversification and decentralization in gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender communities; along with a desire to preserve unique gay cultural differences from the assimilation into the mainstream gave birth to the notion of "queerness". Queer nationalism tended to reduce the gay movement to issues of aesthetics, style, and performance while neglecting political, economic, and familial issues (Adam, 1995). "In the advanced societies of the European Union, North America, Australia, and New Zealand, the gay and lesbian movement has come to be seen in liberal and leftist analyses as a movement in defense of minority rights. (Conservatives still tend to want to define movements of social change in terms of social decay)" (Adam, 1995, p.177). The International Lesbian and Gay Association and Amnesty International monitored the status of gay people in developing and often hostile nations, such as Argentina, Columbia, China, and Islamic states, where official and unofficial assaults against gay men occurred (Adam, 1995). Developing countries continued to emulate the most conservative values preached by Judaeo-Christian missionaries and imposed by economic incentive and military dominance. 1990's Developments In the Western world, many more cultural steps forward than backwards occurred. Liberal activists formed "Queer Nation" and conservative activists founded Log Cabin Republicans. The US federal Hate Crimes Statistics Act began to collect data on hate crimes against gay people. In 1992, President Bill Clinton was elected with much gay support, especially due to his campaign promise to lift the military gay ban. In 1993, the Soviet Union dropped Stalin's antigay laws that had been in force since 1934. In America, hundreds of thousands of gay rights supporters marched on Washington, but by 1994, President Clinton's attempt to lift the ban on gays in the military was defeated by conservatives, and he settled for the "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy. By contrast, Australia dropped its military ban. The World Health Organization deleted homosexuality from its International Classification of Diseases, and the United Nations recognized the International Lesbian and Gay Association. In 1997, China decriminalized homosexuality. Ellen DeGeneres' television character came out, with a prime time lesbian kiss. Antigay violence increased in response to more gay visibility. In 1998, the murder of Matthew Shepard galvanized the movement to add sexual orientation to hate crime laws. During the 1990's, gay images appeared with increasing frequency in television, film, theatre, news and advertising; often with stereotypes and homophobic reactions as themes (Wilke, 2003). Global communication about gay issues increased exponentially via the internet. Military Progress In 1999, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that Britain's ban on homosexuals in the military was unlawful. By the end of the twentieth century, European Union countries no longer banned gays from their military forces, and the United States continued its "Don't ask, don't tell" policy. Countries where bans remained included Turkey, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Venezuela (Forward March, 1999). American opposition to gay military service waned. The UC Santa Barbara Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military noted progressive decrease in opposition to gays serving in the armed forces through the 1990's. A 1999 poll showed that only 37% of civilians opposed gays serving openly in the military, whereas 73% of military school officers opposed. A 2000 study found that the percentage of U.S. Naval officers reporting discomfort in the presence of homosexuals dropped from 58% in 1994 to 36% in 1999 (Dotinga, 2001). Throughout the 1990's, male rape associated with warfare was reported more openly. In 1990, Iraqi soldiers raped young Kuwaiti men. Several US military men were captured and sexually assaulted in the Persian Gulf War. Army male rape expressed ethnic tensions in some nonRussian regions of the Soviet Union. In 1993, male rape and castration were widespread during the Yugoslav civil war. During the Bosnian civil unrest, 5000-7000 male soldiers were sexually assaulted. Serb police and paramilitaries sexually tortured many men. In 1996, gangs of Croatian men raped British male soldiers stationed along the coast, resulting in a curfew. Western culture became more open about what had for millennia been an unspeakable horror, military male rape. In 1993, the US Air Force Academy included a male rape scenario to prepare soldiers for how to cope with being captured. A 19 year old cadet reported being paraded around the base in a skirt. Then the skirt was removed and he was ordered to bend over and be mounted by another male in front of his fellow cadets. Afterward, he complained to government officials about the humiliation of his ordeal (Scarce, 1997). Gay Marriage? Through the decade, where decriminalization and protection from discrimination were achieved, gay activists began working towards equality in recognition of intimate relationships and family life. In 1989, Denmark was the first nation to establish a registered partnership system which conferred most marital rights and responsibilities to gay couples. On October 1, 1989, Axel and Eigil Axgil celebrated being the first registered partnership by riding in a parade through Copenhagen. Norway passed a domestic partnership law in 1993 and Sweden in 1994. In other Western nations, gay couples were gradually gaining various aspects of marital recognition through changes in corporate policy, local and state legislation, and court challenges (Adam, 1995). In 1993, a Hawaiian court ruled that 2 men could marry. The decision was appealed to the state supreme court. By 1996, Hawaiians feared that their Supreme Court would legalize gay marriage, so they amended their state constitution to limit marriage to heterosexuals. The United States Congress responded by passing the Defense of Marriage Act, also limiting marriage to heterosexual opposite sex couples. 2000-: Gay Marriage and Transgender Issues Emerge Outside of America, the year 2000 saw marked progress. The European Court of Human Rights, the court of final appeal for the 41 nations in the Council of Europe, set a milestone for Europe when it struck down the British gross-indecency law that had been used to convict Oscar Wilde in 1895. The gross-indecency law could no longer violate the privacy rights guaranteed by the European Convention on Human Rights (Wockner, 2000). The European Union Parliament adopted a nonbinding resolution urging all 15 member nations to grant same-sex couples equal rights with heterosexual couples. South Africa's parliament banned discrimination based on sexual orientation. In the United States, much progress occurred as well. The 2000 U.S. Census showed that more than 600,000 households were headed by same-sex partners, up 314% from the 1990 census (Musbach, 2000). The 2000 National Election Survey found that the public supported sexual orientation nondiscrimination laws by a 2:1 margin. The majority (72%) support the right to military service. However, 51% remained opposed to same-sex couples adopting children, down from 69% opposition in 1992 (Buford, 2001). Vermont passed the first U.S. civil union law granting all the rights and privileges of marriage, without the certificate. However, some setbacks occurred in 2000 as well. The US Supreme Court upheld the right of Boy Scouts to exclude gay boys and men. An Army general who was a member of the July 2000 Action Plan to combat anti-gay harassment defended the exclusion of gay service members as a way to preserve unit cohesion: "You've got to understand that a man's biggest fear is a sexual assault" (Human Rights Watch, 2003). No doubt, his statement explains why the Boy Scouts still exclude gay boys and men, too. In 2001 progress outside of America, Germany granted gay partners many of the rights previously reserved for heterosexual marriage. However, Russia remained more conservative. Moscow's Mayor Yuri Luzhkov refused to allow a Gay Pride march "because such demonstrations outrage the majority of the capital's population, are in effect propaganda of dissipation and force upon society unacceptable norms of behavior" (Stein, 2001). Notice the mayor's irrational concern about homosexuality being forced upon his society, a continuing conservative Western theme. American response to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack on the New York City World Trade Center and the Pentagon shows how readily ancient cultural homophobia can be reawakened by a current cultural trauma. Following the attack, American tabloid media reported that the suspected leader of the attack, Mohamed Atta, was accompanied by his secret gay boyfriend, Abdulaziz Alomari, when they hijacked the first plane to hit the World Trade Center and commit suicide together. Columnists noted fears that there might be a network of murderous homosexuals behind the attack. Associated Press coverage of the American military response included a photo of a Navy officer standing next to a bomb about to be dropped on the enemy in Afghanistan. Someone had written on the bomb, "HIGH JACK THIS, FAGS," again equating homosexuals with the enemy (Tsakuda, 2001). Conservative Christian leader, Jerry Falwell, blamed gay activists for the provoking the attack as God's punishment for secularizing America. Gay discharges from the US military reached the highest level since 1987. Developments outside of America continued. By 2002, several European countries, including Denmark, Sweden, France and Germany had recognized gay unions with rights and responsibilities similar to marriage. Germany pardoned nearly 50,000 gay men who had been persecuted by Nazis. Sweden legalized adoption of children by same-sex couples. Taiwan lifted its ban on gays in the military. Buenos Aires, Argentina became the first conservative Latin American city to confer benefits for civil unions of same-sex partners, despite opposition from the Catholic Church. However, Saudi Arabia beheaded 3 men for homosexual acts. In America, the year 2002 saw further developments. The Arkansas Supreme Court struck down its sodomy law, leaving only 13 states with sodomy laws remaining (Lisotta, 2002). The New York Times, followed by other metropolitan newspapers, began including same-sex couples in wedding announcements. The American Law Institute recommended extending alimony and property rights to domestic partners. The American Academy of Pediatrics announced support for gays adopting their partner's children. The AAP stated that gay couples could provide stable, loving and emotionally healthy family life for children. However, conservative Catholic leaders tried to shift attention away from their failure to protect children by blaming gay priests for the churches child molestation scandal, even though 80-90% of cases were heterosexual. Bishop Wilton Gregory, President of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, reported that the Vatican summit "struggled to make sure that the Catholic priesthood is not dominated by homosexual men" (Caldwell, 2002, p. 16). Again, note the conservative fear of homosexual dominance. Cultural progress continued in 2003 outside of America. The European Court of Human Rights ruled that member nations could no longer have different ages of consent for homosexual and heterosexual relations. Great Britain repealed Section 28, the 1988 law that prohibited local governments from promoting homosexuality and prohibited schools from teaching the acceptability of homosexuality as a family relationship (Wockner, 2003). Belgium became the second nation, after the Netherlands, to recognize same-sex marriage. The European Union Parliament voted to require member nations to recognize gay marriage rights, which began a process of member nations revising their existing laws to comply (Asher, 2003). More than half of the European Union's 15 nations including Denmark, Finland, Sweden, France, Germany, and Portugal recognized same-sex couples legally to some degree. Austria, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain and the United Kingdom did not yet legally recognize same-sex couples. An Ontario, Canada court granted full marriage rights to gay Canadians. British Columbia followed shortly after. All of Canada is expected to grant full gay marriage by 2004 (Wockner, 2003). So, some areas of the world--Netherlands, Belgium, and Canada--that had been influenced by Napoleon Bonaparte's 1810 Code decriminalizing homosexuality--became the first to grant gay marriage. However, Russia responded to economic recession by becoming more conservative and issued a new policy excluding gays from military service (Asher, 2003). During 2003 in the United States, a Gallup poll showed that 60% of Americans endorsed legal recognition for gay relationships, even though only 49% would like to call that 'gay marriage' (Lisotta, 2003). The first LGBT legislative caucus formed in California, and planned a "gay agenda" to pass a domestic partners bill that would grant gay couples rights comparable to marriage. The State of New York removed the term "sodomy" from its laws. On June 26, 2003, in Lawrence v. Texas, the US Supreme Court reversed its 1986 Hardwick v. Georgia decision and struck down the 13 remaining state sodomy laws. Speaking for the Court, Justice Kennedy said, "The case does involve two adults who, with full and mutual consent from each other, engaged in sexual practices common to a homosexual lifestyle. The petitioners are entitled to respect for their private lives. The State cannot demean their existence or control their destiny by making their private sexual conduct a crime. Their right to liberty under the Due Process Clause gives them the full right to engage in their conduct without intervention of the government" (Kennedy, 2003, p.18). As dissenting Justice Scalia warned, gay activists hailed the ruling as a landmark victory and vowed to use it in the fight to gain equal marriage and family rights (Rostow, 2003). Gay fraternities reached about two dozen in number across the country. They organized under the national umbrella of Delta Lambda Phi to provide community support and service. Members of the new Florida International University Gamma Lambda Mu agree not to date each other, in order to dispel the common assumption that the fraternity is just an orgy (DeQuine, 2003). The Human Rights Campaign tracked workplace discrimination issues and reported that 2252 United States employers included sexual orientation in their non-discrimination policies, and 5767 employers offered domestic partner health benefits (Dahir, 2003). Modern religious beliefs about homosexuality vary from complete acceptance and support in some faiths, to strong condemnation in others. Accepting Western congregations include Quakers, Unitarians, and Church of Christ. Episcopalians, Lutherans, Presbyterians welcome gay members, but oppose same-sex unions and ordination. Catholics see homosexual orientation as morally neutral until an act is committed, which is condemned as sinful. Methodists support gay civil rights, but condemn homosexual relations. Other denominations voice disapproval. Baptists preach that homosexuality is an abomination and have expelled churches for being too welcoming to gay parishioners. Mormons and Seventh-day Adventists are antigay and recommend reparative therapies. The Assembly of God teaches overcoming the sinful temptation of homosexuality through prayer. Jewish congregations range from Orthodox disapproval to Reform support. Islam forbids homosexual relations, with penalties as extreme as death. Hinduism provides a mixture of diverse messages. Buddhism approves in some areas, and views homosexuality as unnatural in other (Tilley, 2003). The Episcopalian Diocese of New Hampshire elected Rev. Canon V. Gene Robinson as the first openly gay bishop in the worldwide Anglican Communion of 79 million members, 2.3 million of whom reside in the United States. His election stirred the controversy over whether or not to ordain openly gay bishops. Most of the world's Anglicans were thought to be too conservative to ordain gay clergy (Goodstein, 2003). The Church of England appointed openly gay Rev. Jeffrey John as Bishop of Reading, but when conservatives from around the world threatened to break away from the mother church, Rev. John resigned to preserve church unity (Marin, 2003). Pope John Paul strongly voiced Catholic opposition to gay marriage on numerous occasions. In January, he called gay marriage "inauthentic" and stated that "such a caricature has no future and cannot give future to any society" (Alexander, 2003). The Catholic Church continued its Crusade against homosexuality. For example, the Rockford, IL parish fired its church music director/organist of five years, Bill Stein, when he and his partner of ten years announced plans to adopt a child, and refused to promise that Bill would abandon his partner and lead a "chaste" life (Mustikhan, 2003). Western countries continued to show increasing tolerance for homosexuality in their militaries. The UC Santa Barbara Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military reported that 24 nations allowed gay men to serve in their armed forces. The Center conducted an in depth study of how Australian, Canadian, Israeli, and British militaries have adjusted since their bans on homosexual personnel were dropped. All four countries expected professional conduct from all service members, regardless of sexual orientation. Though a minority of gay service members was open about their sexual orientation, and few more became open after the bans were dropped, most gay service members remained closeted. "Not a single one of the 104 experts interviewed believed that the Australian, Canadian, Israeli, or British decisions to lift their gay bans undermined military performance, readiness, or cohesion, led to increased difficulties in recruiting or retention, or increased the rate of HIV infection among the troops" (Belkin, 2003, p.110). Immediately following the US Supreme Court's decision striking down sodomy laws, former Army LTC Loren Loomis, a decorated Vietnam War veteran, filed the first lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of the "Don't ask, don't tell policy. LTC Loomis had been discharged one week short of retirement, and lost $1 million retirement benefits because a firefighter who was trying to put out a fire at LTC Loomis' home found a videotape of LTC Loomis having sex with men (nytimes.com, 2003). When America recovers from recession, it will probably allow gay men to serve openly in the military. Two 2003 Bravo reality television shows illustrate how entertainment media often leads in cultural change. The first show, "Queer Eye for the Straight Guy," gay fashion consultants do makeovers for straight guys to help them be more attractive. In the second show, "Boy Meets Boy," an all-male version of "The Bachelor," heterosexual ringers compete with gay men for the bachelor. If selected, the straight man wins money instead of a lover. Both shows blur boundaries of what is desirable in men. The first one shows how gay sensibility improves the straight man, and the second one has the audience guessing who is who. "...these series mark a genuine shift in American society. Instead of being at odds with one another, straight and gay men are together playing with traditional notions of sexuality--the boundary between what is heterosexual and what is homosexual is getting hard to keep straight" (Hallett, 2003, p.38). CONCLUDING DISCUSSION Many other cultures throughout history have approved various forms of both homosexual and heterosexual relationships. In many cultures, young males have sought to gain strength and masculine status through homosexual relations with older and more powerful males or through an alliance between otherwise competitive males. By contrast, Western males have feared losing their masculinity through homosexual contact, and becoming weak and vulnerable like females. They are likely to defend their masculine status from a homosexual advance by fighting. Three thousand years of enemy militaries defeating, raping, emasculating, and subjugating Judaeo-Christian men have likely contributed to these Western beliefs and fears about homosexuality. Since Western culture has achieved sufficient technological military superiority to defeat its last major enemy, the Ottoman Empire, and to dominate the other cultures of the world; homophobia has been declining. The status of Western women and homosexual men has gradually been improving, thanks in part to gains made by the feminist women's movement. In the twentieth century, Western culture still stigmatized homosexuality enough to create the need for a supportive gay minority identity movement, and became tolerant enough to allow it's development. What had been sinful, then criminal, and then disordered, became an oppressed minority identity demanding equal rights. Tolerance appears to have fluctuated with the level of economic and political security. By gaining status and equal rights as a legitimate social minority, the gay community may continue to bring homosexuality out of the Western closet and to desensitize Western culture from its post-traumatic homophobia. Hopefully, by contributing to a better understanding of Western male homophobia, the hypotheses of this paper may stimulate further research, publication, and discussions that reduce homophobia. As Judaeo-Christian culture recovers from its post-traumatic homophobia, its men may become stronger and freer to enjoy the pleasure and intimacy of loving relationships with one another. REFERENCES Adam, B. S., The rise of a gay and lesbian movement. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995. Alexander, D. "Pope strongly decries same-sex marriages." 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